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neurologyYou need to know

• The axial skeleton is made up of the cranium, sternum, ribs and vertebral column, and the vertebral column is divided into cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum and coccyx.
• The appendicular skeleton includes the scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, ilium, ischium, pubis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, talus and metatarsals.
• The main functions of the skeleton are shape, support, protection, movement, blood cell production and mineral storage.
• Long bones mainly act as levers for movement, short bones provide support and stability, flat bones protect organs and provide muscle attachment, irregular bones have specialised support or protection roles, and sesamoid bones reduce friction and improve leverage at tendons.
• A joint is where two or more bones articulate, and joints are classified as fixed or fused joints with no movement, slightly movable cartilaginous joints with limited movement, and freely movable synovial joints.
• Hinge joints include the elbow, knee and ankle; ball and socket joints include the shoulder and hip; pivot joints include the neck and radio-ulnar joint; the wrist is a condyloid joint; the thumb is a saddle joint; and the processes of the vertebrae form gliding joints.
• Articular or hyaline cartilage reduces friction and absorbs shock, ligaments connect bone to bone for stability, the synovial membrane produces synovial fluid, synovial fluid lubricates the joint, menisci and pads of fat cushion the joint, bursae reduce friction, and the joint capsule encloses and stabilises the joint.
• Flexion decreases the angle at a joint, extension increases the angle at a joint, lateral flexion bends the spine sideways, abduction moves a limb away from the midline, and adduction moves a limb towards the midline.
• Horizontal abduction and adduction occur across the transverse plane, medial rotation turns a limb inwards, lateral rotation turns a limb outwards, circumduction is a cone-shaped movement, pronation turns the palm down, supination turns the palm up, dorsiflexion lifts the toes up, and plantar flexion points the toes down.
• The vertebral column supports the head and trunk, protects the spinal cord, helps posture, allows movements such as flexion, extension, lateral flexion and rotation, and helps absorb impact during physical activity.
• Main muscles at synovial joints include the deltoid, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, trapezius and teres major at the shoulder; biceps brachii and triceps brachii at the elbow; pronator teres and supinator at the radio-ulnar joint; wrist flexors and extensors at the wrist; rectus abdominis, erector spinae and obliques at the vertebral column; iliopsoas, gluteals and adductors at the hip; quadriceps and hamstrings at the knee; and tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius and soleus at the ankle.
• The agonist is the main muscle causing a movement, the antagonist opposes or controls the movement, and a fixator stabilises another body part so the movement can be performed effectively.
• A concentric contraction occurs when a muscle shortens under tension, an eccentric contraction occurs when a muscle lengthens under tension, and an isometric contraction occurs when a muscle produces tension without changing length.
• Slow oxidative fibres are fatigue resistant and suited to aerobic endurance work, fast oxidative fibres produce moderate force with moderate fatigue resistance, and fast glycolytic fibres produce high force quickly but fatigue rapidly in high-intensity anaerobic activity.
• Physical activity can increase synovial fluid production, joint range of movement, muscle temperature and blood flow in the short term, while long-term training can increase bone density, ligament strength, tendon strength, muscle size and muscular strength.
• Blood flows from the vena cavae into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, through the pulmonary valve and pulmonary artery to the lungs, then returns through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium, through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle, and out through the aortic valve and aorta to the body.
• Heart rate is the number of beats per minute, stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected per beat, and cardiac output is calculated using `cardiac output = stroke volume \times heart rate`.
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure, arterioles control blood flow into capillary beds, capillaries allow exchange of gases and nutrients, venules collect blood from capillaries, and veins return blood to the heart with the help of valves.
• Red blood cells transport oxygen using haemoglobin, white blood cells defend against infection, platelets help blood to clot, and plasma transports blood cells, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide and heat.
• The ATP-PC system is anaerobic and uses phosphocreatine for very short high-intensity work, the lactic acid system is anaerobic and breaks down glucose to produce ATP with lactate as a by-product, and the aerobic system uses oxygen to release a large amount of ATP from carbohydrates and fats with carbon dioxide and water as by-products.

• Label diagrams of the skeleton accurately, including the specified axial and appendicular bones and the regions of the vertebral column.
• Classify bones and joints from examples, giving the correct type and a justified link to their main function in sport or physical activity.
• Analyse a sporting movement by naming the joint action, the agonist, the antagonist, any key fixator and the type of muscle contraction during each phase.
• Label diagrams of the heart, blood vessels, lungs and respiratory tract, then trace the correct pathway of blood or air through the relevant structures.
• Calculate cardiac output using `cardiac output = stroke volume \times heart rate`, using correct units and interpreting how values change from rest to exercise.
• Calculate minute ventilation using `minute ventilation = tidal volume \times breathing frequency`, using correct units and interpreting how values change at different exercise intensities.
• Interpret and draw graphs showing changes in heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, tidal volume, breathing frequency and minute ventilation during rest, submaximal exercise, maximal exercise and recovery.
• Explain gaseous exchange at the alveoli using diffusion gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide and the features of alveoli that make exchange efficient.
• Apply the energy continuum to sporting examples by identifying the predominant energy system from the intensity and duration of the activity.
• Compare recovery processes after exercise, including phosphocreatine resynthesis, lactate removal and restoration of oxygen and fuel stores, with appropriate timescales.