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neurologyYou need to know

• Proteins are macronutrients made from amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
• The order and folding of amino acids determine a protein's structure and function.
• Protein is needed for growth and for the repair and maintenance of body tissues.
• Proteins are used to make enzymes, antibodies and some hormones.
• Protein can supply energy, but the body usually uses carbohydrate and fat for energy first.
• Meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese and yoghurt are major animal sources of protein.
• Beans, lentils, peas, nuts and seeds are major plant sources of protein.
• Cereal foods such as bread, rice, pasta and oats contain some protein but are not concentrated sources.
• Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body and must be supplied by food.
• Non-essential amino acids can be made by the body.
• High biological value proteins contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts.
• Meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, yoghurt, soya and quinoa are sources of high biological value protein.
• Low biological value proteins lack one or more essential amino acids.
• Pulses, nuts, seeds and cereals are usually sources of low biological value protein.
• Protein complementation combines different low biological value proteins so that a meal provides all the essential amino acids.
• Protein complementation is particularly important when planning vegetarian and vegan meals.
• Soya, tofu, textured vegetable protein and mycoprotein are protein alternatives that can replace meat in recipes.
• Tofu is made by coagulating soya milk so that the protein forms curds.
• Textured vegetable protein is made mainly from soya protein and is processed to give a meat-like texture.
• Mycoprotein is made from fungal protein grown by fermentation.
• Acid can denature proteins by changing their structure so that they unfold.
• Denatured proteins can coagulate by bonding together, which makes mixtures thicken or set.
• Acidic ingredients such as lemon juice or vinegar can denature proteins in foods.
• Protein deficiency can slow growth in children and teenagers.
• Protein deficiency can reduce tissue repair and maintenance.
• Protein deficiency can weaken the immune system.
• Severe protein deficiency can cause kwashiorkor.
• Kwashiorkor can cause oedema, poor growth and a swollen abdomen.
• The body cannot store excess protein, so surplus amino acids are broken down in the liver.
• Deamination removes nitrogen from surplus amino acids and forms urea.
• Urea is excreted by the kidneys in urine.
• Regularly eating more protein than the body needs increases urea production and can contribute to dehydration.
• Very high protein intakes can place extra strain on the kidneys.
• Dietary reference values give guideline amounts of nutrients needed by different population groups.
• Protein requirements vary with age, sex, growth, pregnancy, breastfeeding and physical activity.
• Fat is a macronutrient that is found in foods as solid fats and liquid oils.
• Fat provides a concentrated source of energy, supplying 9 kcal per gram.
• Dietary fat supplies essential fatty acids that the body cannot make for itself.
• Fat is needed to form cell membranes and support normal growth and repair.
• Stored body fat insulates the body and helps reduce heat loss.
• Stored body fat cushions and protects internal organs.
• Dietary fat is needed to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
• Common animal sources of fat include butter, cheese, cream, fatty meat, oily fish and eggs.
• Common plant sources of fat include vegetable oils, avocados, olives, nuts and seeds.
• Saturated fats are found mainly in butter, lard, fatty meat, full-fat dairy products and many pastries, cakes and biscuits.
• Unsaturated fats are found mainly in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, avocados and oily fish.
• Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as olive oil, rapeseed oil and avocados.
• Polyunsaturated fats are found in foods such as sunflower oil, walnuts and oily fish.
• Omega-3 and omega-6 fats are polyunsaturated essential fatty acids.
• A lack of dietary fat can cause the body to use protein for energy, which can contribute to muscle loss and poor growth.
• A deficiency of dietary fat can reduce absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K and cause vitamin deficiencies.
• A low intake of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Eating too much fat can increase total energy intake and lead to weight gain and obesity.
• Obesity increases the risk of health problems including type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and stroke.
• A diet high in saturated fat can raise blood cholesterol and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Dietary guidelines recommend that no more than 35% of total food energy should come from fat.
• The adult reference intake for total fat is about 70 g per day.
• The adult reference intake for saturated fat is about 20 g per day.
• Most fats in food are triglycerides made from one glycerol molecule joined to three fatty acids.
• The structure of the fatty acids determines whether a fat is saturated or unsaturated.
• Saturated fatty acids contain only single carbon-carbon bonds and are fully saturated with hydrogen.
• Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature.
• Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
• Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature.
• Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one carbon-carbon double bond.
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
• Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat in the diet lowers the risk of heart disease.
• Carbohydrates are a macronutrient group that includes sugars, starch and dietary fibre.
• The main function of carbohydrate is to provide energy for the body.
• Digestible carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, which cells use in respiration to release energy.
• Glucose is the preferred fuel for the brain and many other body cells.
• Excess glucose can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later use.
• Adequate carbohydrate intake helps spare protein so that protein can be used for growth and repair instead of energy.
• Main food sources of carbohydrate include bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, cereals, fruit, milk, pulses and foods containing added sugar.
• Very low carbohydrate intake can cause tiredness, hunger, dizziness and other symptoms of low blood glucose.
• When carbohydrate intake is too low, the body can break down fat and protein for energy.
• Using protein for energy over time can contribute to loss of muscle tissue.
• A diet low in carbohydrate is often also low in fibre, which increases the risk of constipation.
• Regular intake of sugary foods and drinks can contribute to excess energy intake, weight gain and tooth decay.
• Obesity increases the risk of health problems such as coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
• Very high fibre intake can reduce the absorption of some minerals, including iron and calcium.
• In the UK, about 50% of daily food energy should come from carbohydrates.
• Free sugars should provide no more than 5% of daily food energy.
• About 45% of daily food energy should come from starch and sugars naturally present in milk, fruit and vegetables.
• The recommended fibre intake for adults is 30 g per day.
• Sugars are simple carbohydrates that include monosaccharides and disaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are single sugar molecules that can be absorbed directly through the wall of the small intestine.
• Glucose, fructose and galactose are monosaccharides.
• Disaccharides are sugars made from two monosaccharides joined together.
• Disaccharides must be digested into monosaccharides before they can be absorbed.
• Sucrose is the disaccharide in table sugar, lactose is the disaccharide in milk, and maltose is formed during starch digestion and is found in cereals.
• Sugary foods and drinks are digested and absorbed quickly, so they can raise blood glucose rapidly.
• Free sugars are sugars added to foods and drinks and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juice and fruit juice concentrates.
• Starch is a polysaccharide made from many glucose molecules joined together.
• Starch is digested more slowly than sugars because its long chains must be broken down before glucose can be absorbed.
• Foods rich in starch include bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, cereals and foods made from flour.
• Pulses such as beans and lentils provide starch as well as fibre.
• Starch is found in plant foods because plants store carbohydrate as starch.
• When starch is heated with liquid, the starch granules absorb water, swell and gelatinise, which thickens and sets the mixture.
• Dietary fibre is the indigestible part of plant foods, including cellulose in plant cell walls.
• Dietary fibre is not digested by human enzymes in the small intestine.
• Fibre adds bulk to food in the gut and helps food move through the digestive system.
• A high-fibre diet helps prevent constipation and is associated with a lower risk of bowel disease, including bowel cancer.
• Fibre can slow the absorption of glucose and increase satiety, which can help control appetite.
• Good sources of fibre include wholegrain cereals, wholemeal bread, brown rice, oats, fruit, vegetables, pulses, nuts and seeds.
• Using wholegrain flour instead of white flour is one way to increase the fibre content of bread and other recipes.
• Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fat, are absorbed with dietary fat and can be stored in the liver and body fat.
• The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K.
• Most water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored in large amounts in the body, so they need to be eaten regularly.
• The water-soluble vitamins required in GCSE Food are vitamin C and the B group vitamins B1 thiamin, B2 riboflavin, B3 niacin, B9 folate and B12 cobalamin.
• Vitamins are needed in small amounts, and their dietary reference values are usually given in micrograms or milligrams.
• Dietary reference values for vitamins vary with age, sex and life stage.
• Vitamin A is needed for vision, immune function, healthy skin and growth.
• Vitamin A from animal foods is called retinol, and provitamin A from plant foods includes carotenoids such as beta-carotene.
• Good sources of vitamin A include liver, dairy products, eggs and orange or dark green vegetables such as carrots, spinach and sweet potatoes.
• Vitamin A deficiency can cause night blindness and, in severe cases, permanent damage to vision.
• Excess vitamin A can be toxic and is especially dangerous during pregnancy because it can harm a developing foetus.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin A is about 600 micrograms per day for teenagers, 700 micrograms per day for adult men and 600 micrograms per day for adult women.
• Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium, which is needed for healthy bones and teeth.
• The body can make vitamin D when skin is exposed to sunlight.
• Good sources of vitamin D include oily fish, egg yolks and fortified foods such as fat spreads and some dairy products.
• Vitamin D deficiency can cause rickets in children and poor bone health.
• Babies, young children, pregnant women and people with limited sunlight exposure are at higher risk of vitamin D deficiency.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin D is 10 micrograms per day for everyone aged over four years.
• Excess vitamin D can cause too much calcium to build up in the body and can damage soft tissues such as the kidneys.
• Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and helps protect cells from oxidative damage.
• Good sources of vitamin E include vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables and fortified cereals.
• Vitamin E deficiency is rare.
• Excess vitamin E can reduce appetite.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin E is 4 milligrams per day for males and 3 milligrams per day for females.
• Vitamin K is needed for normal blood clotting and also contributes to bone health.
• Good sources of vitamin K include green leafy vegetables, broccoli, Brussels sprouts and vegetable oils.
• Vitamin K deficiency can slow blood clotting and cause easy bruising or bleeding.
• Newborn babies are at particular risk of vitamin K deficiency.
• Excess vitamin K from food is not usually associated with harmful effects.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin K is about 0.045 milligrams per day for teenagers.
• Vitamin C is needed for growth and repair of body tissues, helps the body absorb iron and acts as an antioxidant.
• Good sources of vitamin C include citrus fruits, berries, peppers, broccoli and Brussels sprouts.
• Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, which can lead to swollen gums, joint pain and poor wound healing.
• Excess vitamin C can cause stomach pain and diarrhoea.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin C is about 35 milligrams per day for teenagers and 40 milligrams per day for adults.
• Vitamin B1 thiamin is needed to release energy from carbohydrate and for normal nerve function.
• Good sources of vitamin B1 thiamin include wholegrains, pork, sunflower seeds and legumes.
• Vitamin B1 thiamin deficiency causes beri-beri.
• Excess vitamin B1 thiamin is uncommon because excess thiamin is excreted in urine.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin B1 thiamin is about 0.9 milligrams per day for teenage boys and 0.7 milligrams per day for teenage girls.
• Vitamin B2 riboflavin is needed for energy release and the metabolism of fats.
• Good sources of vitamin B2 riboflavin include milk, eggs, lean meat, green vegetables and fortified cereals.
• Vitamin B2 riboflavin deficiency can cause skin problems and poor growth.
• Excess vitamin B2 riboflavin has no known harmful effects.
• The adult dietary reference value for vitamin B2 riboflavin is about 1.3 milligrams per day for men and 1.1 milligrams per day for women.
• Vitamin B3 niacin is needed for energy metabolism, DNA repair and the production of steroid hormones.
• Good sources of vitamin B3 niacin include meat, fish, poultry, peanuts and fortified cereals.
• Vitamin B3 niacin deficiency can cause dermatitis and diarrhoea.
• Excess vitamin B3 niacin can cause flushing, nausea and liver damage.
• The adult dietary reference value for vitamin B3 niacin is about 16.5 milligrams per day for men and 13.2 milligrams per day for women.
• Vitamin B9 folate, often called folic acid in fortified foods and supplements, is needed for DNA synthesis, cell division and normal foetal development.
• Good sources of vitamin B9 folate include leafy green vegetables, legumes, nuts and fortified cereals.
• Vitamin B9 folate deficiency can cause anaemia and increases the risk of neural tube defects such as spina bifida during pregnancy.
• Excess folic acid can mask a vitamin B12 deficiency.
• The dietary reference value for vitamin B9 folate is 200 micrograms per day for people aged over 14 years.
• Vitamin B12 cobalamin is needed for red blood cell formation, normal nerve function and DNA synthesis.
• Good sources of vitamin B12 cobalamin include meat, fish, dairy products and fortified cereals.
• People following a vegan diet need fortified foods or supplements to obtain vitamin B12 because natural sources are mainly animal foods.
• Vitamin B12 cobalamin deficiency can cause fatigue, weakness and nerve symptoms such as tingling in the hands or feet.
• Excess vitamin B12 cobalamin has no known harmful effects.
• The adult dietary reference value for vitamin B12 cobalamin is about 1.5 micrograms per day.
• Water-soluble vitamins, especially vitamin C and B vitamins, are lost more easily during preparation and cooking than fat-soluble vitamins.
• Boiling can reduce the amount of vitamin C and B vitamins in food because these vitamins dissolve into the cooking water.
• Excessive cutting, soaking, peeling and overcooking fruit and vegetables increase the loss of water-soluble vitamins.
• Damaged, over-ripe or poorly stored fruit and vegetables can lose vitamin content before they are eaten.
• Using less water, shortening cooking time and adding vegetables to already boiling water can reduce the loss of water-soluble vitamins.
• Steaming usually preserves more water-soluble vitamins than boiling because the food has less contact with water.
• Antioxidants protect body cells from damage caused by free radicals.
• Vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E all have antioxidant functions.
• Antioxidant vitamins help reduce oxidative damage to body cells, which is linked to a lower risk of heart disease and some cancers.
• A mineral is a naturally occurring element that the body needs in small amounts to stay healthy.
• The main minerals studied in GCSE Food are calcium, iron, sodium, fluoride, iodine and phosphorus.
• Calcium is needed to build and maintain strong bones and teeth.
• Calcium is also needed for muscle contraction and normal blood clotting.
• Good sources of calcium include milk, cheese, yoghurt, nuts, soya beans, tofu, oily fish, green leafy vegetables, bread and fortified cereals.
• Calcium deficiency can weaken bones and make them more likely to break.
• Calcium deficiency in childhood can contribute to rickets, which causes poor bone development and bone deformities.
• Long-term calcium deficiency can contribute to osteoporosis, which causes bones to become less dense and more fragile.
• Excess calcium can cause stomach pain and diarrhoea.
• The adult dietary reference value for calcium is 700 mg per day.
• Young children need about 450 to 550 mg of calcium per day.
• Adolescent boys need about 1,000 mg of calcium per day and adolescent girls need about 800 mg per day because rapid growth increases demand.
• Iron is needed to make haemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries oxygen around the body.
• Good sources of iron include red meat, liver, eggs, beans, nuts, dried fruit, green leafy vegetables, fortified cereals and bread.
• Haem iron from meat is absorbed more easily than non-haem iron from plant foods.
• Vitamin C helps the body absorb non-haem iron more effectively.
• People who follow vegetarian or vegan diets must plan carefully to get enough iron.
• Iron deficiency can cause anaemia, which reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood.
• Symptoms of iron-deficiency anaemia include tiredness, dizziness, shortness of breath during exercise and a faster heart rate.
• Excess iron can cause constipation, nausea and stomach pain.
• Adult women need more iron than adult men because menstruation increases iron losses.
• The adult dietary reference value for iron is 14.8 mg per day for women and 8.7 mg per day for men.
• Adolescent boys need about 11.3 mg of iron per day during rapid growth.
• Post-menopausal women need about the same amount of iron as men.
• Sodium is the mineral in salt.
• Sodium helps regulate fluid balance and is needed for nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
• Common sources of salt include bacon, cheese, tinned foods, ready meals, salted nuts and crisps.
• Consuming too much salt can raise blood pressure and increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes.
• Sodium deficiency can cause muscle cramps and, in severe cases, nausea, confusion and seizures.
• Adults should consume no more than 6 g of salt per day.
• Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay by strengthening tooth enamel.
• Fluoride also helps to strengthen bones.
• Good sources of fluoride include fluoridated tap water, natural mineral water, tea, seafood and bony fish such as sardines.
• Fluoride deficiency increases the risk of tooth decay.
• Excess fluoride can cause staining and pitting of tooth enamel and, in severe cases, skeletal fluorosis.
• Adults should consume about 3 to 4 mg of fluoride per day.
• Iodine is needed to make thyroid hormones such as thyroxine, which regulate metabolic rate.
• Good sources of iodine include red meat, sea fish, shellfish, cereals, grains and bread.
• Iodine deficiency can reduce thyroid hormone production and cause a swollen thyroid gland called a goitre.
• Iodine deficiency in pregnancy and childhood can impair brain development.
• Excess iodine can disrupt normal thyroid function.
• Adults should consume about 140 micrograms of iodine per day.
• Phosphorus is needed to build and maintain strong bones and teeth.
• Phosphorus is also needed to release energy from food.
• Good sources of phosphorus include red meat, dairy products, fish, bread, oats, beans and lentils.
• Phosphorus deficiency can cause bone pain, fragile bones, stiff joints and fatigue.
• Excess phosphorus can cause stomach pain and diarrhoea and may weaken bones by disturbing calcium balance.
• The adult dietary reference value for phosphorus is 550 mg per day.
• Water is essential for health even though it does not provide energy.
• The body gains water from drinks and from the water content of foods.
• The body loses water in urine, sweat, exhaled air and small amounts in faeces.
• Hydration means maintaining the correct balance of water in the body.
• The kidneys regulate water balance by producing more urine when the body has excess water and less urine when the body has too little water.
• Water helps the kidneys remove dissolved waste products from the blood in urine, including urea made when excess amino acids are broken down.
• Water helps prevent constipation by keeping faeces soft enough to move through the intestines.
• Water helps cool the body because evaporation of sweat removes heat energy from the skin and the blood beneath it.
• Water in saliva moistens food and helps form a bolus that can be swallowed easily.
• Water is part of digestive juices and helps digested food move through the digestive system.
• Blood, tissue fluid and cell cytoplasm are mostly water, so water is the medium that transports dissolved substances and waste products around the body.
• Daily fluid requirements vary with age, sex, diet, physical activity and climate.
• In the UK, general guidance is to drink about 1.2 to 1.8 litres of fluid per day, which is roughly six to eight glasses.
• Around 20 to 30% of daily water intake usually comes from food and 70 to 80% comes from drinks.
• Most drinks contribute to hydration, but plain water is usually the best routine choice and alcoholic drinks are poor for hydration.
• Extra fluid is needed in hot weather and during exercise because sweating increases water loss.
• Drinking too little fluid causes dehydration, which can lead to headaches, tiredness and light-headedness.
• Drinking excessive amounts of water in a short time can cause water intoxication, which makes body cells swell and can cause seizures or lasting damage, but this is rare.
• A balanced diet includes a variety of foods in proportions that provide enough energy and nutrients for health.
• No single food contains all the nutrients the human body needs, so variety is essential.
• The Eatwell Guide is the UK government's model for the proportions of foods in a healthy diet.
• The Eatwell Guide recommends basing meals on starchy carbohydrates such as potatoes, bread, rice and pasta, preferably in wholegrain forms.
• The Eatwell Guide recommends eating at least five portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables each day.
• Beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat and other proteins should be eaten in moderate amounts as important sources of protein, vitamins and minerals.
• UK healthy eating guidance recommends eating at least two portions of fish each week, including one portion of oily fish.
• Dairy foods and dairy alternatives should be chosen in lower-fat and lower-sugar forms where possible.
• Unsaturated oils and spreads should be used in small amounts because they are high in energy.
• Foods high in fat, salt and sugar should be eaten less often and in small amounts.
• Healthy hydration usually means drinking six to eight cups or glasses of fluid each day.
• Water, lower-fat milk, sugar-free drinks, tea and coffee can all contribute to daily fluid intake.
• Portion size should match the age, body size, activity level and nutritional needs of the person eating the meal.
• Portion sizes that are too large can lead to energy intake exceeding energy expenditure and increase the risk of overweight and obesity.
• Portion sizes that are too small may fail to meet energy and nutrient needs and can contribute to undernutrition.
• Following serving-size guidance on food packaging can help cooks estimate suitable quantities.
• Meal planning should take account of both the amount of food needed and the money available to spend.
• The cost per portion of a meal depends on the total recipe cost and the number of portions produced.
• Planning meals before shopping can help households stay within budget and avoid unnecessary purchases.
• Comparing prices across shops, choosing seasonal ingredients and using own-brand products can reduce food costs.
• Cooking from basic ingredients is often cheaper per portion than buying equivalent ready meals, although the actual cost depends on the ingredients used.
• Using the same ingredients in several meals can reduce waste and lower the average cost of food.
• Careful meal planning can reduce food waste and lower overall food spending.
• Nutritional needs change across the life course because growth, activity, health and hormonal changes alter energy and nutrient requirements.
• People of all ages need a balanced diet that meets their energy and nutrient needs.
• Maintaining a healthy body weight throughout life helps reduce the risk of conditions such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes and joint problems.
• Maintaining a healthy body weight depends on balancing energy intake with energy expenditure over time.
• Regular physical activity supports health and helps maintain a healthy body weight at every life stage.
• Meal planning should take account of age, developmental stage, activity level and any medical, cultural or ethical dietary requirements.
• A lacto-ovo vegetarian diet excludes meat and fish but includes eggs and dairy products.
• A lacto-vegetarian diet excludes meat, fish and eggs but includes dairy products.
• A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including meat, fish, dairy, eggs and honey.
• Vegetarian and vegan meals should include plant protein sources such as beans, lentils, tofu, soya products, nuts and seeds.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets need careful planning to provide enough iron, calcium, iodine, omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12.
• Vegans need a reliable source of vitamin B12 from fortified foods or supplements because unfortified plant foods do not provide enough vitamin B12.
• Coeliac disease is an autoimmune condition triggered by gluten.
• Gluten is found in wheat, barley and rye and in foods made from those grains.
• Meals for someone with coeliac disease must use naturally gluten-free foods or certified gluten-free alternatives.
• Preventing cross-contamination with gluten is essential when preparing food for someone with coeliac disease.
• Lactose intolerance is difficulty digesting lactose, which is the natural sugar in milk.
• People with lactose intolerance may need lactose-free dairy products or fortified plant-based alternatives.
• People who reduce or avoid dairy foods because of lactose intolerance need other calcium-rich foods to maintain calcium intake.
• Fibre helps food move through the digestive system and supports bowel health.
• A high-fibre diet can help reduce the risk of constipation, bowel disease, type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease.
• High-fibre meals should include wholegrains, pulses, fruit and vegetables.
• Replacing white bread, white rice and white pasta with wholegrain versions increases fibre intake.
• Young children need small, frequent meals because they have small stomachs and high energy needs relative to their size.
• Young children need a variety of foods to provide protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals for growth and development.
• Very high-fibre foods can fill young children up quickly and may reduce energy intake if meals are not planned carefully.
• Frequent sugary foods and drinks increase the risk of tooth decay in young children.
• Encouraging young children to try a range of foods helps them accept a varied diet.
• Young children should be offered age-appropriate portions and allowed to stop eating when they feel full.
• Adolescents need extra energy and nutrients because puberty and growth spurts increase nutritional demands.
• Regular meals can help teenagers maintain energy levels and reduce reliance on sugary snacks.
• Adolescent boys often need more energy and protein than girls because they typically develop more muscle mass.
• Adolescent girls need more iron after menstruation begins.
• Calcium and vitamin D are especially important during adolescence because bone mass is still developing.
• Protein is especially important during adolescence because body tissues are growing and repairing rapidly.
• Adults still need a balanced diet even though growth has stopped.
• Adult energy needs vary according to sex, body size, activity level, pregnancy and breastfeeding.
• Men often need more energy than women because they tend to have a larger body size and more muscle mass.
• Pregnancy increases the need for some nutrients, so meals for pregnant adults must be nutrient-dense as well as safe to eat.
• Older adults often need less energy because basal metabolic rate and activity levels may decrease with age.
• Older adults still need adequate protein, vitamins, minerals and fluid even when their energy needs fall.
• Calcium and vitamin D remain important in older adulthood to help maintain bone health.
• Older adults should limit saturated fat and excess salt to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure.
• Some older adults may require supplements such as vitamin D if diet, sunlight exposure or health conditions make intake inadequate.
• Protein is essential for growth and repair and is particularly important in childhood, adolescence and older adulthood.
• Iron is especially important for teenage girls and menstruating adult women because blood loss increases iron requirements.
• Vitamin C helps the body absorb non-haem iron from plant foods.
• B vitamins are needed for energy release and normal nervous system function.
• Carbohydrates and unsaturated fats are important energy sources for physically active children and teenagers.
• Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy the body needs at rest over 24 hours to maintain vital functions such as breathing and circulation.
• Around 75% of daily energy intake is used to meet basal metabolic rate.
• Physical activity level is a measure of how active a person is.
• Physical activity level is estimated from the amount and intensity of physical activity carried out during the day.
• A higher physical activity level means a person uses more energy through activity.
• Daily energy requirement in kilocalories can be estimated by multiplying basal metabolic rate by physical activity level.
• A person with a higher basal metabolic rate and a higher physical activity level needs more energy than a person with a lower basal metabolic rate and a lower physical activity level.
• Energy balance occurs when energy intake matches energy requirement.
• Consuming more energy than the body requires over time causes weight gain.
• Consuming less energy than the body requires over time causes weight loss.
• Basal metabolic rate usually decreases with age because muscle mass tends to fall and body processes gradually slow down.
• Regular physical activity can increase basal metabolic rate over time because increased muscle mass raises energy use at rest.
• Males usually have a higher basal metabolic rate than females because they generally have more muscle mass.
• Taller or heavier people usually have a higher basal metabolic rate because a larger body needs more energy at rest.
• Protein should provide about 15% of daily energy intake.
• Fat should provide no more than 35% of daily energy intake.
• Carbohydrate should provide about 50% of daily energy intake.
• About 45% of daily energy intake should come from starches, lactose in milk and fruit sugars, and no more than 5% should come from free sugars.
• Portion sizes should be adjusted to life stage and physical activity level so that energy intake matches energy needs.
• Nutritional analysis is the process of calculating the energy and nutrient content of a recipe, meal or whole diet.
• Nutritional analysis uses current nutrient data for each ingredient from food tables or nutritional analysis software.
• Nutritional analysis helps recipes, meals and diets to be planned or modified so that they follow healthy eating guidelines.
• In the UK, the Eatwell Guide is the main reference for the proportions of food groups in a healthy, balanced diet.
• Replacing refined starchy carbohydrates with wholegrain versions increases the fibre content of a dish.
• Using leaner meat or lower-fat alternatives can reduce the fat and energy content of a dish.
• Using herbs, spices or other flavourings instead of extra salt can reduce the salt content of a dish.
• Portion size affects total energy intake, so reducing the portion size lowers the energy provided per serving.
• Food tables usually list the nutrient content of foods per 100 g, so the values often need to be converted to the quantity actually used in a recipe.
• A nutrient value given per 100 g can be converted to a nutrient value per 1 g by dividing by 100.
• The nutrient contribution of an ingredient is calculated by multiplying the nutrient value per 1 g by the mass of that ingredient used in the recipe.
• The nutritional value of a whole recipe is found by adding the nutrient contributions of all the ingredients.
• The nutritional value of one serving is calculated by dividing the total nutritional value of the recipe by the number of portions.
• Ingredient quantities may need to be converted into matching units before calculations are made, especially when recipe quantities and nutrient data are expressed differently.
• Nutritional analysis software allows ingredients to be searched and recipe quantities to be entered by mass or volume.
• Nutritional analysis software can automatically calculate energy and nutrient values for a whole recipe and for individual portions.
• Some nutritional analysis software can compare calculated values with recommended intake data or healthy eating guidelines.
• A balanced diet provides the energy and nutrients the body needs for growth, repair and good health.
• Poor nutrition or an imbalanced diet increases the risk of deficiency diseases, obesity and long-term illness.
• Nutritional needs may need to be adjusted to prevent or manage specific health conditions.
• Obesity is a condition in which excess body fat increases the risk of ill health.
• Obesity usually develops when energy intake is greater than energy used over time.
• Regular consumption of foods high in fat and free sugars increases the risk of obesity.
• Low levels of physical activity increase the likelihood of energy imbalance and obesity.
• Obesity increases the risk of Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, some cancers and joint problems.
• Reducing energy intake, controlling portion sizes and increasing physical activity can help reduce obesity.
• Cardiovascular disease affects the heart and blood vessels and includes coronary heart disease and high blood pressure.
• Coronary heart disease develops when fatty deposits build up in the coronary arteries.
• Narrowed coronary arteries reduce the supply of blood, oxygen and glucose to the heart muscle and can trigger angina or a heart attack.
• Diets high in saturated fat increase blood cholesterol and raise the risk of coronary heart disease.
• A high salt intake can contribute to high blood pressure.
• High blood pressure damages blood vessels and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke.
• Limiting saturated fat, salt and alcohol, not smoking and exercising regularly all help reduce cardiovascular risk.
• Bone health depends on an adequate intake of calcium and vitamin D.
• Rickets is a childhood disease in which bones become soft and weak, usually because of vitamin D deficiency.
• Limited sunlight exposure increases the risk of vitamin D deficiency because the skin needs sunlight to make vitamin D.
• Rickets can cause bone pain, poor growth and bowed legs.
• Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone density falls and bones become fragile and more likely to fracture.
• Low intakes of calcium and vitamin D over time increase the risk of osteoporosis.
• Osteoporosis is more common in older adults because bone density decreases with age.
• Eating calcium-rich foods and getting enough vitamin D help maintain bone health and reduce the risk of bone disease.
• Dental health is affected by both the amount and the frequency of sugary foods and drinks consumed.
• Free sugars increase the risk of tooth decay because bacteria in the mouth convert sugar into acids that damage enamel.
• Sugary foods and drinks consumed frequently between meals are more harmful to teeth than the same foods and drinks consumed at mealtimes.
• Plaque is a sticky layer of bacteria on the teeth that can lead to tooth decay and gum disease.
• Brushing teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste helps protect enamel and reduce tooth decay.
• Tooth decay can cause pain, infection, tooth loss and difficulty eating.
• Iron is needed to make haemoglobin, the substance in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
• Iron deficiency anaemia develops when the body does not have enough iron to make enough healthy red blood cells.
• Low dietary iron intake, blood loss and increased iron needs during menstruation or pregnancy can cause iron deficiency anaemia.
• Iron deficiency anaemia can cause tiredness, pale skin, shortness of breath, dizziness and headaches.
• Vitamin C helps the body absorb non-haem iron from plant foods.
• Iron deficiency anaemia may be treated with dietary changes or iron supplements.
• Diabetes affects the body's control of blood glucose concentration.
• Insulin is the hormone that helps glucose move from the blood into body cells.
• Type 2 diabetes develops when body cells become less responsive to insulin or the body does not make enough insulin.
• Being overweight, being physically inactive and having a poor diet increase the risk of Type 2 diabetes.
• Type 2 diabetes increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, nerve damage and sight loss.
• Managing Type 2 diabetes usually involves weight control, regular physical activity and a balanced diet based on high-fibre starchy carbohydrates and limited free sugars.

• Calculate the energy and nutrient contribution of each ingredient in a recipe by converting food table values given per 100 g to the quantity actually used.
• Calculate the nutritional value of a whole recipe and each portion by summing ingredient data and dividing by the number of servings.
• Interpret nutritional analysis data to judge whether a recipe meets the recommended balance of about 50% carbohydrate, 15% protein and no more than 35% fat.
• Interpret sugar data to distinguish free sugars from sugars naturally present in milk, fruit and vegetables when evaluating a dish.
• Compare foods and recipes to identify whether their fats are mainly saturated or unsaturated and explain the health implications of that balance.
• Adapt a recipe to reduce total fat and saturated fat by choosing leaner ingredients and lower-fat cooking methods such as grilling or baking instead of frying.
• Select starchy carbohydrate ingredients and wholegrain alternatives that increase fibre intake while keeping a meal aligned with healthy eating guidance.
• Modify a recipe to increase fibre by replacing refined cereals with wholegrain versions and adding pulses, fruit or vegetables where appropriate.
• Explain how starch gelatinisation thickens or sets a mixture when starch is heated with liquid in a sauce or similar dish.
• Plan vegetarian or vegan meals that achieve protein complementation and provide reliable sources of iron, calcium, iodine and vitamin B12.
• Select suitable protein alternatives such as tofu, soya products, textured vegetable protein or mycoprotein when adapting recipes for vegetarian or vegan diets.
• Explain how acidic ingredients can denature and coagulate proteins when preparing dishes that contain eggs, milk or soya products.
• Select preparation and cooking methods that minimise the loss of water-soluble vitamins by limiting peeling, cutting, soaking and boiling.
• Compare steaming, boiling, simmering and poaching to justify which water-based method best preserves nutrients in a given dish.
• Plan meals for different life stages by adjusting portion size, energy provision and key nutrients such as iron, calcium, vitamin D and protein.
• Calculate how basal metabolic rate and physical activity level affect daily energy requirements and use that calculation to justify portion sizes.
• Evaluate a meal or day's intake against the Eatwell Guide, hydration guidance and relevant dietary reference values.
• Adapt meals for coeliac disease or lactose intolerance by selecting safe substitutes and preventing gluten cross-contamination where required.
• Select ingredients and seasonings that reduce salt intake, including replacing some salt with herbs, spices or other flavourings.
• Calculate cost per portion and adjust ingredient choices or portion numbers to meet a budget without undermining nutritional balance.