Curriculum Portal

neurologyYou need to know

• Food choice is influenced by personal, practical, social, economic and environmental factors.
• Physical activity level influences food choice because energy intake should broadly match energy expenditure.
• People with a higher physical activity level usually need more energy than people with a lower physical activity level.
• If energy intake is lower than energy expenditure over time, the body uses stored energy and body mass is likely to decrease.
• If energy intake is higher than energy expenditure over time, surplus energy is stored mainly as body fat.
• Some sports performers choose higher-protein foods to support muscle growth and repair.
• Celebrations and special occasions can influence food choice towards traditional, indulgent or culturally significant dishes.
• Religious festivals, birthdays, weddings and funerals may involve specific foods linked to custom or symbolism.
• Cost of food influences food choice because households must choose foods that fit their budget.
• Branded foods are often more expensive than supermarket own-brand alternatives.
• Promotions such as special offers and bulk-buy deals can encourage consumers to choose particular foods.
• Meal planning, batch cooking, comparing prices, reducing food waste and using end-of-day discounts can lower food costs.
• Personal preferences influence food choice because people usually select foods they like.
• Enjoyment of texture, aroma, flavour and appearance can influence whether a food is chosen again.
• Food preferences can be shaped by familiarity, upbringing and ethical associations such as sustainability or animal welfare.
• Food availability influences food choice because foods that are easy to obtain are more likely to be bought.
• Consumers may prefer foods that can be bought in one shop or in a single online order.
• Remote locations and transport costs can reduce the local availability and variety of foods.
• Healthy eating influences food choice when people use nutritional knowledge to select foods that support good health.
• Some consumers choose foods with less sugar, salt or fat, fewer artificial additives, or a particular macronutrient profile for health reasons.
• People with food allergies or intolerances must avoid ingredients that trigger adverse reactions.
• Income influences food choice because higher income usually increases access to a wider range of foods.
• Lower income can limit access to premium produce, imported foods, and some fresh meat and fish.
• Lifestyle influences food choice because working hours, commuting and caring responsibilities affect the time and effort available for food preparation.
• Busy lifestyles can increase demand for convenience foods such as ready meals, takeaways and meal kits.
• Stress can lead some people to choose comfort foods they enjoy rather than foods chosen mainly for health.
• Seasonality influences food choice because the availability, price and quality of fresh produce change throughout the year.
• Seasonal crops depend on the climate and growing conditions of the region where the food is produced.
• Fruit and vegetables sold out of season may cost more because they are imported or produced in less suitable conditions.
• Choosing seasonal and locally produced food can reduce transport-related fossil fuel use and support local producers.
• Time of day influences food choice because people may choose different foods for breakfast, lunch, evening meals and snacks.
• Breakfast choices may be selected to provide energy for the start of the day.
• Lunch choices may be selected to sustain energy levels through the afternoon.
• Snack choices are often influenced by convenience and the need for energy between meals.
• Time available to prepare and cook food influences food choice because complex dishes require more shopping, preparation and washing up.
• Limited time can increase reliance on convenience foods such as ready meals, pre-prepared vegetables and grated cheese.
• More available time can allow people to choose dishes with several preparation stages or longer cooking times.
• The cost of a recipe depends on the ingredients chosen, the quantity of each ingredient required and the price paid for each ingredient.
• The cost of an ingredient used in a recipe can be calculated from the proportion of the whole pack that is used.
• Recipes can be modified to reduce cost or to meet allergies, intolerances, ethical diets and personal preferences.
• Ingredients can be substituted to make recipes suitable for vegetarian, vegan or pescetarian diets.
• Reasons for choosing a recipe can be justified by reference to health, cost, availability, preferences and lifestyle.
• Food choices can be influenced by religion, culture, ethical beliefs and medical needs.
• Culture influences food choice through traditions, beliefs, customs and social habits.
• Religious food rules can affect which ingredients, dishes and cooking methods are acceptable.
• Many Buddhists are vegetarian or vegan because Buddhist teaching encourages compassion towards living things.
• Many Buddhists avoid alcohol because intoxication conflicts with Buddhist moral teaching.
• Buddhism has no single set of compulsory food rules, so Buddhist food choices vary between traditions and individuals.
• Christianity has fewer universal food rules than many other religions, so Christian food choices often depend on denomination or personal practice.
• Many Christians give up particular foods during Lent as an act of self-discipline before Easter.
• Some Christians avoid meat on certain Fridays and choose fish instead.
• Christian festivals often influence food choice, such as roast meals at Christmas and spiced buns at Easter.
• Many Hindus are vegetarian because ahimsa teaches non-violence towards living things.
• Hindus do not eat beef because cows are regarded as sacred in Hinduism.
• Many Hindus avoid alcohol.
• Hindu festivals such as Diwali often include vegetarian dishes and sweets.
• Some Hindus fast on holy days such as Navratri.
• Muslims do not eat pork or pork products.
• Muslims do not drink alcohol.
• Halal food is food that is permitted under Islamic law.
• Halal meat must come from an animal slaughtered according to Islamic rules.
• During Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to sunset.
• Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan and is commonly celebrated with special meals and sweet foods.
• Jewish food rules are called kosher laws or kashrut.
• Jews do not eat pork or shellfish because these foods are not kosher.
• Kosher meat and dairy foods must not be prepared or eaten together.
• Land animals must have split hooves and chew the cud to be kosher.
• Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher.
• Kosher kitchens often use separate utensils and storage for meat and dairy foods to prevent mixing them.
• Passover is marked by avoiding leavened bread and eating unleavened bread such as matzah.
• Rosh Hashanah is often marked with symbolic foods such as apples and honey.
• Yom Kippur is commonly observed with a fast.
• Rastafarians often follow an I-tal diet, which emphasises natural and minimally processed foods.
• An I-tal diet avoids artificial additives and other heavily processed foods.
• Many Rastafarians avoid pork, and some avoid all meat, so vegetarian or vegan dishes are often suitable.
• Many Rastafarians avoid alcohol and may prefer herbal drinks.
• Many Sikhs avoid alcohol and other intoxicants.
• Some Sikhs are vegetarian, especially when eating in a gurdwara.
• Sikhs who eat meat must avoid halal and kosher meat because ritually slaughtered meat is forbidden in Sikhism.
• Food served in a gurdwara langar is usually vegetarian so that people from different backgrounds can eat together.
• Ethical and moral beliefs can influence which foods people are willing to buy, cook or eat.
• Concern about animal welfare leads some consumers to choose free-range eggs, higher-welfare meat or vegetarian alternatives.
• Fairtrade certification aims to give producers a fairer price and better working conditions.
• Some consumers choose local produce to support local farmers and reduce food miles.
• Organic food is produced to rules that restrict the routine use of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.
• Some consumers avoid genetically modified foods because they are concerned about environmental, ethical or long-term health issues.
• A food intolerance usually causes difficulty digesting a food, whereas a food allergy involves the immune system.
• Gluten is a protein found in wheat, barley and rye.
• People with coeliac disease or gluten intolerance must avoid foods containing gluten and prevent cross-contamination.
• Lactose is the natural sugar found in milk and dairy products.
• Lactose intolerance happens when the body cannot digest lactose properly because it produces too little lactase.
• People with lactose intolerance can choose lactose-free milk or non-dairy alternatives in recipes.
• A milk allergy is different from lactose intolerance because a milk allergy is an immune response to milk proteins.
• A wheat allergy is different from coeliac disease because a wheat allergy is an immune response to wheat proteins.
• Common allergens named in this specification are nuts, egg, milk, wheat, fish and shellfish.
• Even small amounts of an allergen can trigger a reaction in a person with a food allergy.
• Food allergy symptoms can include swelling, hives, vomiting and breathing difficulties.
• Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening.
• An adrenaline auto-injector such as an EpiPen is used in an emergency to treat anaphylaxis.
• Cross-contamination must be prevented when cooking for someone with a food allergy or coeliac disease.
• Recipes can be modified for religious, ethical and medical needs by substituting suitable ingredients without making the dish unacceptable to the intended eater.
• Food labels help consumers make informed choices by identifying what a product is, what it contains and how it should be stored or used.
• In the UK, mandatory food labelling is governed by retained European Union food information law and Food Standards Agency guidance.
• The label must state the name of the food so that the product can be identified accurately.
• The ingredients list must list ingredients in descending order by weight at the time the food was made.
• The label must clearly identify any of the 14 regulated allergens used as ingredients, usually by emphasising them in the ingredients list.
• The label must state the net quantity of the food, usually as weight or volume.
• A best before date indicates when food quality is likely to begin to decline rather than when the food becomes unsafe.
• A use by date is the last date on which a highly perishable food should be eaten safely if it has been stored correctly.
• Food labels must give any storage conditions needed to keep the food safe and in good condition, such as refrigerate after opening.
• Food labels must include the name and address of the food business responsible for the product.
• Food labels must include the country of origin or place of provenance when legislation requires it or when leaving it out would mislead consumers.
• Food labels must include instructions for use when consumers need them to prepare, cook or consume the food safely.
• Drinks containing more than 1.2% alcohol by volume must state the alcoholic strength by volume.
• Most prepacked foods must include a nutrition declaration.
• The mandatory nutrition declaration normally includes energy, fat, saturates, carbohydrate, sugars, protein and salt.
• Some foods require specific warnings when there is a particular safety risk, such as small bones or ingredients unsuitable for certain groups.
• Non-mandatory labelling can still influence food choice by adding extra information about the product.
• Serving suggestions are non-mandatory information that show one possible way to present or eat a food product.
• Provenance information describes where a food comes from and may include the source of its ingredients or details of how it was produced.
• Nutritional labelling must be interpreted carefully because values may be given per 100 g, per 100 ml or per portion.
• Values given per 100 g or per 100 ml allow consumers to compare similar products fairly.
• Energy on food labels is usually shown in both kilojoules and kilocalories.
• Front-of-pack nutrition labels often summarise energy, fat, saturates, sugars and salt.
• Front-of-pack labels may also show the percentage of the reference intake provided by one serving.
• Reference intake values are guide amounts for an average adult and help consumers judge how a serving contributes to daily intake.
• Traffic light labelling uses red, amber and green to show whether the amount of fat, saturates, sugars or salt is high, medium or low.
• A red traffic light indicates that a food is high in that nutrient and should usually be eaten less often or in smaller amounts.
• An amber traffic light indicates a medium amount of that nutrient.
• A green traffic light indicates a low amount of that nutrient.
• Food manufacturers may voluntarily add further nutrition information, such as fibre, unsaturated fat, vitamins or minerals, when the law allows it.
• Marketing influences food choice by affecting what consumers notice, how products are perceived and how much value they seem to offer.
• Buy one get one free offers can increase sales by making shoppers feel they are getting better value for money.
• Special offers and price promotions can encourage consumers to switch brands or buy foods they did not plan to purchase.
• Free samples can increase sales because tasting a product reduces uncertainty about whether the consumer will like it.
• Money-off coupons can encourage trial or repeat purchase by lowering the effective price.
• Meal deals can influence food choice by making a bundle of items seem cheaper than buying the items separately.
• Loyalty cards can influence food choice by rewarding repeated purchases at the same retailer.
• Point-of-sale marketing includes product placement, shelf displays and checkout positioning designed to attract attention at the moment of purchase.
• Products placed at eye level or near checkouts are more likely to be noticed and bought.
• Advertising through television, radio, print, social media and the internet can shape food choice by increasing awareness and creating positive associations with products.
• Media influence can make branded foods seem desirable by linking them with lifestyle, convenience or value.
• British cuisine traditionally builds meals around a starchy carbohydrate, a protein food and vegetables.
• Traditional British cooking relies on ingredients widely produced in Britain, including potatoes, meat, fish, flour, eggs, butter, onions, leeks, apples and soft fruit, so dishes often reflect seasonal availability.
• British cuisine has strong regional variation, with local dishes shaped by the ingredients and traditions of different parts of the United Kingdom.
• Traditional British dishes are usually hearty and mildly seasoned rather than strongly spiced.
• Traditional British dishes include roast dinners, meat pies, Lancashire hotpot, Cornish pasties, fish and chips, scones, Victoria sponge and fruit crumble.
• Common British preparation techniques include peeling, filleting, mashing, rubbing in, grating and blending.
• Common British cooking methods include roasting, baking, boiling, stewing and frying.
• Common equipment used in British cuisine includes saucepans, frying pans, casserole dishes, roasting tins, baking trays, baking tins and ovens.
• British plated meals often present the main components separately, with gravy or sauce poured over the food or served in a jug.
• British desserts, cakes and scones are commonly served on small plates, cake stands or tiered stands, especially in afternoon tea service.
• Pastry, cakes and puddings are important parts of British cuisine as well as savoury main meals.
• A British breakfast may be a simple meal such as cereal or toast, or a cooked breakfast such as a full English breakfast with eggs, bacon, sausages, beans and mushrooms.
• In British eating patterns, lunch is often lighter than dinner, while a Sunday roast is traditionally served as a larger midday meal.
• Afternoon tea and elevenses are traditional British eating patterns built around tea and baked goods or biscuits.
• Dinner is usually the main cooked meal in British households and is commonly eaten in the early evening.
• Modern British cuisine often updates traditional recipes by using healthier cooking methods, plant-based alternatives or flavours borrowed from other cuisines.
• Italian cuisine emphasises fresh, high-quality ingredients such as tomatoes, olive oil, garlic, basil, wheat flour and cheese.
• Italian cuisine varies by region, with northern dishes often using rice, butter and richer sauces, while southern and coastal dishes more often use tomatoes, olive oil and seafood.
• Many Italian recipes are passed down through families, so regional identity and tradition are important in Italian cooking.
• Traditional Italian dishes include risotto, pasta dishes such as carbonara, pizza and tiramisu.
• Pasta in Italian cuisine is often cooked al dente, which means it is tender but still slightly firm.
• Common Italian equipment includes pasta machines, pizza ovens, mortars and pestles, and mandolins for even slicing.
• Common Italian cooking methods include sauteing sauces, boiling pasta, baking breads and pizzas, and grilling meats and vegetables.
• Italian food is usually presented simply, with an emphasis on neat portioning and ingredient quality rather than heavy decoration.
• Italian dishes are often finished with garnishes such as fresh basil, grated hard cheese or a drizzle of olive oil.
• Formal Italian meals may follow a sequence of antipasto, primo, secondo, contorno and dolce.
• In traditional Italian eating patterns, pranzo has often been the main meal of the day, while the evening meal is lighter.
• Coffee is an important part of Italian eating patterns and is commonly taken after meals or during short breaks.
• Modern Italian cooking often adapts traditional dishes with seasonal variation or lighter ingredients, but it still values fresh produce and simple flavour combinations.
• Mexican cuisine is built around staple ingredients such as maize, beans, chillies, tomatoes, avocados and meats.
• Mexican cuisine is known for bold flavours created by combining heat, acidity, herbs and savoury ingredients.
• Mexican cuisine has strong regional variation, with northern dishes often featuring grilled meats and southern dishes making greater use of maize, beans and complex sauces.
• Corn is especially important in Mexican cuisine because it is used to make staple foods such as tortillas and tamales.
• Traditional Mexican dishes include tacos, tamales, enchiladas, mole and churros.
• Many Mexican dishes are linked to family celebrations, religious festivals and regional traditions.
• Common Mexican equipment includes comales, tortilla presses, molcajetes and clay pots.
• Common Mexican cooking methods include griddling, grilling, frying, steaming and slow cooking.
• Mexican dishes are often presented with bright colours, contrasting textures and garnishes such as coriander, lime, radish and queso fresco.
• Salsas and moles are important in Mexican cuisine because they add heat, acidity, depth of flavour and regional identity.
• Street food is an important part of Mexican food culture, so many dishes are designed to be portable, quick to serve and eaten by hand.
• Traditional Mexican eating patterns often include desayuno, a large midday comida and a lighter evening cena.
• Antojitos are small snack foods commonly eaten between main meals in Mexico.
• Modern Mexican cuisine includes both traditional recipes and fusion or street-food variations, but handmade tortillas, salsas and spice blends remain important markers of authenticity.
• Sensory evaluation measures how a food is perceived by the senses of sight, smell, taste and touch.
• Sensory evaluation data is used in product development, quality control and decisions about whether a product is likely to be accepted by consumers.
• Sight influences food choice because colour, shape and presentation affect expectations of freshness, ripeness and quality.
• Aroma influences food choice because smell contributes strongly to flavour and can make a food seem more or less appealing.
• Touch influences sensory evaluation because texture, temperature and mouthfeel affect how pleasant a food feels to eat.
• Taste influences sensory evaluation because the balance of basic tastes affects whether a food seems pleasant and well seasoned.
• Preference tests measure which foods consumers like and whether a product is acceptable to its target market.
• Preference test results are subjective because they depend on personal opinion.
• Using a large number of consumers improves the reliability of preference test results.
• A paired preference test gives each tester two coded samples and asks which sample is preferred.
• The result of a paired preference test is based on which sample is preferred by the greater number of testers.
• A hedonic test asks testers to rate how much they like or dislike a product on a category scale.
• Hedonic scales commonly use five-point or nine-point categories to measure consumer liking.
• Hedonic test results can be analysed statistically to judge whether differences between products are significant.
• Discrimination tests determine whether testers can detect a perceptible sensory difference between samples.
• Discrimination tests measure whether products are different rather than which product is liked more.
• A triangle test gives three coded samples in which two are the same and one is different.
• A triangle test asks the tester to identify the odd sample out.
• Grading tests include ranking, rating and profiling tests.
• Grading tests are used to measure the order, intensity or description of sensory properties.
• A ranking test asks testers to place samples in order according to the strength of a named sensory property such as sweetness.
• A rating test asks testers to score one or more named sensory attributes for each sample on a scale.
• A profiling test asks testers to judge how strongly descriptive terms such as crispy, chewy or moist apply to a product.
• Profiling tests produce a detailed sensory description that can be compared between products.
• A taste panel may include trained assessors who can evaluate specific sensory attributes consistently.
• Trained taste panels are used for quality control and detailed sensory analysis.
• A taste panel may also include untrained consumers who represent the target market.
• Consumer taste panels are mainly used for acceptability and preference testing.
• Valid sensory testing requires controlled conditions so that differences in results are caused by the food rather than by the test set-up.
• A sensory testing room should be plain, quiet and free from distractions.
• Coloured lighting may be used in sensory testing to reduce the influence of appearance on judgements.
• Testers should be seated separately so that they do not influence one another's responses.
• Testers should be healthy and free from illness because illness can reduce sensitivity to taste and smell.
• Testers should not smoke before testing because smoking can dull taste and smell.
• Testers should not have strong pre-existing likes or dislikes about the products being tested because this can bias the results.
• Samples should be presented in a random order and labelled with anonymous codes.
• Samples should be matched for size and served under the same conditions, including temperature and freshness.
• Samples should be presented in identical containers or on identical equipment to avoid bias.
• Neutral food carriers such as bread or crackers should be used only when the food is normally eaten that way.
• A food carrier used in sensory testing must have little flavour of its own so that it does not affect the sample.
• Water should be provided between samples to cleanse the palate.
• Testers should usually be given about 30 seconds between samples to reduce sensory fatigue.
• Foods from Britain and other countries should be judged against the same sensory criteria of appearance, aroma, taste and texture.
• Tasting and seasoning during cooking allows the final sensory qualities of a dish to be adjusted before serving.
• Infusions, herbs, spices, pastes, jus and reductions can be used to change the taste and aroma of a dish.
• Flavour perception depends on taste receptor cells on the tongue and olfactory receptors in the nose working together.
• Texture and mouthfeel also contribute to the overall flavour experience of a food.
• Taste receptor cells are located in taste buds on the tongue.
• Taste receptor cells detect the five basic tastes of sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami.
• Umami is the savoury taste associated with foods such as meat, stock and some cheeses.
• Chemicals from food must dissolve in saliva before they can stimulate taste receptor cells.
• Stimulated taste receptor cells send nerve impulses to the brain, which interprets the taste.
• All five basic tastes can be detected across most of the tongue, although some areas are slightly more sensitive than others.
• Olfactory receptors are located in the nasal cavity and detect volatile chemicals released from food.
• Smell contributes strongly to flavour because volatile compounds from food reach the olfactory receptors during eating.
• Olfactory receptors send nerve impulses to the brain, which identifies the aroma.
• Food ingredients are classified by source as grown, reared or caught.
• Grown ingredients include fruits, vegetables and cereals.
• Fruits and vegetables are grown as crops in fields, orchards, polytunnels or greenhouses.
• Cereals such as wheat, rice and oats are grasses grown for their edible grains.
• Reared ingredients include meat and poultry from animals raised on farms for food.
• Caught ingredients include fish taken from seas, rivers or lakes.
• Organic farming avoids synthetic fertilisers and pesticides and does not allow genetically modified crops.
• Organic farming uses methods such as crop rotation, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil fertility and control pests.
• Conventional farming uses synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, mechanisation and improved breeds or varieties to increase yield and efficiency.
• Conventional farming usually produces higher yields and cheaper food than organic farming.
• Organic farming can improve soil health, biodiversity and animal welfare, but it often produces lower yields and higher prices.
• Free-range production means that animals have access to the outdoors for part of the day.
• Free-range systems usually give animals more space and opportunities for natural behaviour than indoor intensive systems.
• Free-range food products are often more expensive because production costs are higher and stocking densities are lower.
• Intensive farming keeps many animals or grows high-yield crops in controlled conditions to maximise output from limited land.
• Intensive farming can lower unit costs and make food more widely available.
• Intensive farming can harm animal welfare and increase environmental problems such as pollution, habitat loss and heavy resource use.
• Sustainable fishing means catching fish at a rate that allows fish populations to reproduce and marine ecosystems to recover.
• Sustainable fishing uses measures such as catch quotas, net mesh sizes, minimum landing sizes and closed seasons to reduce overfishing.
• Sustainable fishing helps to protect marine biodiversity and the long-term supply of fish.
• Locally produced food is food grown, reared or made close to where it is sold or eaten.
• Buying locally produced food can support local farmers, jobs and businesses in the local economy.
• Locally produced food can be fresher because it usually spends less time in storage and transport.
• Shorter transport distances can reduce food miles, although local food is not always lower in total environmental impact.
• Locally produced food can offer better traceability because consumers may know more about where and how it was produced.
• Locally produced food may cost more and offer less choice than food from national or global supply chains.
• Seasonal food is food grown and harvested at its natural time of year in a particular climate.
• Seasonal food often needs less artificial heating, lighting or long-distance transport than out-of-season food.
• Seasonal produce is often cheaper and better quality when supply is plentiful.
• Seasonal food limits year-round availability and may require menus to change through the year.
• Genetically modified food comes from organisms whose DNA has been altered using biotechnology to introduce specific traits.
• Genetic modification can increase yield by producing crops with resistance to pests, diseases or adverse weather conditions.
• Genetic modification can improve the nutritional value or storage life of some foods.
• Genetically modified crops may reduce pesticide use in some farming systems.
• Concerns about genetically modified food include gene transfer to wild plants, reduced biodiversity and the development of resistant weeds or pests.
• Concerns about genetically modified food also include consumer distrust, ethical objections and dependence on patented seed technology.
• Food choices affect the environment because farming, processing, packaging, transport and waste all use resources and produce greenhouse gas emissions.
• Seasonal food is food that is grown and harvested naturally at a particular time of year in the local climate.
• Choosing seasonal fruit and vegetables can reduce energy use because it lowers dependence on heated greenhouses, artificial lighting and long-term cold storage.
• Choosing seasonal food can reduce transport emissions when the food is grown closer to where it is sold.
• Growing crops in season can support biodiversity and local ecosystems because production is more closely matched to natural conditions.
• Sustainable food production aims to meet current food needs while limiting damage to soil, water, biodiversity and the climate.
• Sustainable food production includes protecting animal welfare and using resources such as water, feed and energy efficiently.
• Fish farming is a form of aquaculture in which fish are reared in controlled environments for food.
• Fish farming can reduce pressure on wild fish stocks by supplying farmed fish instead of relying only on wild catches.
• Fish farming can provide a predictable year-round supply of fish.
• Poorly managed fish farms can pollute water with waste, chemicals and uneaten feed.
• Poorly managed fish farms can spread parasites and disease to wild fish populations.
• Fish farming can damage habitats if coastal land is cleared or farmed fish escape into local ecosystems.
• Food miles describe the distance food travels from producer to consumer.
• Food miles are only one part of environmental impact because production methods, storage and packaging also affect total emissions.
• Transporting food by air usually creates far more greenhouse gas emissions per kilogram than transporting food by ship or road.
• Buying locally produced food can reduce transport emissions and fossil fuel use.
• Buying locally produced food can support local farmers and businesses and help keep money in the local economy.
• Locally produced food may be fresher because less time is needed for transport and storage.
• Local food is not automatically more sustainable because heated greenhouses or inefficient production can create high emissions.
• Organic food must be produced to certified standards before it can be sold as organic.
• Organic farming does not allow genetically modified ingredients or most synthetic pesticides and fertilisers.
• Organic livestock must be fed organic feed and have access to outdoor space according to organic standards.
• Organic farming often uses crop rotation, compost and natural methods of soil management to maintain fertility.
• Organic farming can reduce soil and water pollution and support biodiversity.
• Organic farming often produces lower yields than intensive conventional farming, so more land may be needed to produce the same amount of food.
• Food waste occurs in homes, during food production and in retail.
• Household food waste is often caused by overbuying, poor storage and misunderstanding date labels such as use by and best before.
• Food waste in production can result from losses during harvesting, processing, storage and transport.
• Retail food waste can result from overstocking and rejecting food that is safe to eat but does not meet cosmetic standards.
• Food waste increases environmental damage because wasted food also wastes the land, water, energy and packaging used to produce it.
• Food waste sent to landfill releases methane, which is a potent greenhouse gas.
• Planning meals, checking stocks and using leftovers can reduce household food waste.
• Composting unavoidable food waste can reduce landfill waste and return nutrients to the soil.
• Food packaging can protect food, prevent contamination and extend shelf life, which can reduce food waste.
• Food packaging also uses raw materials and energy, and discarded packaging can create pollution.
• Plastic packaging can persist in the environment for many years and can break down into microplastics.
• Reducing unnecessary packaging and choosing reusable, recyclable or biodegradable packaging can lower environmental impact.
• A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a product, activity, person or organisation, often expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent.
• Foods with a high carbon footprint usually require large inputs of fuel, feed, fertiliser, land or energy.
• Beef and lamb usually have higher carbon footprints than most plant foods because ruminant animals produce methane and require large amounts of land and feed.
• Using more plant-based foods and less high-emission meat and dairy can reduce the carbon footprint of a diet.
• Using renewable energy in food production and processing can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• Food security means having reliable access to enough safe, nutritious, affordable, high-quality food.
• National food security depends on a country producing enough food itself or being able to buy and import enough food from elsewhere.
• Heavy reliance on imported food can weaken food security if poor harvests, conflict, fuel costs or transport disruption reduce supply or raise prices.
• Food shortages in one region can raise prices in local and global markets, making food less affordable for other communities.
• A growing global population increases demand for food and puts pressure on the land, water and energy used in food production.
• Food production is limited by the amount of suitable land available for growing crops and rearing livestock.
• Urban growth, soil damage and the use of land for biofuels can reduce the amount of land available for producing food.
• Climate change can reduce food security by altering rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures and making some areas less suitable for farming.
• Global warming increases the risk of extreme weather such as droughts and flooding, which can destroy crops, kill livestock and disrupt supply chains.
• Sustainable food production meets current food needs without reducing the ability of future generations to produce food.
• Sustainable farming methods include protecting soil, conserving water and limiting overuse of fertilisers and pesticides to reduce environmental damage.
• Eating more plant-based foods can improve sustainability because producing plant foods usually uses less land and water than producing meat.
• Managing fish stocks sustainably, including using quotas and responsible fish farming, helps prevent overfishing and protects future supplies of fish.
• Genetic modification can improve food security by producing crops with higher yields, better pest or drought resistance, or improved nutritional value.
• Genetically modified foods remain controversial because some people are concerned about environmental impacts, seed ownership and possible unknown long-term effects.
• Food waste reduces food security because edible food is lost on farms, in shops and in homes instead of feeding people.
• Reducing food waste makes more food available and also cuts the land, water and energy wasted in producing food that is not eaten.
• Fairtrade aims to give producers in lower-income countries a fairer price and a more stable income for the food they grow.
• Fairtrade can improve local communities by helping farmers and workers earn more, invest in safer working conditions and fund community projects.
• Maintaining a sustainable supply of safe, nutritious and affordable food is a major global challenge because environmental pressures and unequal access to resources do not affect all countries equally.
• Food processing makes food safer, extends shelf life, improves convenience, and can improve appearance or flavour.
• Primary processing converts raw ingredients into edible foods or ingredients for further processing.
• Raw foods that are reared, caught or grown are usually harvested, cleaned and sorted before further processing.
• Primary processing of meat begins after slaughter and can include hanging, boning and jointing before preservation or tenderising methods are used.
• Salting preserves meat by drawing water out and lowering water availability for microorganisms.
• Smoking preserves meat or fish and adds a distinctive flavour.
• Primary processing of fish can include gutting and cutting whole fish into fillets, steaks, tail pieces or cutlets.
• Fish can be preserved during primary processing by chilling, freezing, salting, smoking, pickling or canning.
• Pickling fish in vinegar adds flavour and helps preserve the fish because acidic conditions inhibit microorganisms.
• Primary processing of fruit and vegetables includes sorting, trimming, removing damaged produce, washing, peeling and extracting juice.
• Fruit and vegetables can be protected from decay by temperature and moisture control, waxing, blanching, drying, preserving in sugar or acid, freezing or canning.
• Primary processing of cereals includes milling wheat into flour.
• Cleaning wheat removes stones, dust and other impurities before milling.
• Grinding crushes wheat grains into flour.
• Sifting separates flour into different grades based on particle size and composition.
• Primary processing of milk includes pasteurisation, UHT treatment, sterilisation and micro-filtration.
• Pasteurisation heats milk enough to kill harmful bacteria while causing little change to flavour.
• UHT treatment heats milk to a higher temperature for a very short time so that it keeps much longer unopened.
• Sterilisation heats milk to a very high temperature so that almost all microorganisms are destroyed, which gives the milk a very long shelf life.
• Micro-filtration removes microorganisms by passing milk through very fine membranes rather than relying mainly on high heat.
• Primary processing can reduce nutritional value because some vitamins are damaged by heat or drying.
• Vitamin C and many B vitamins are especially vulnerable to loss during heating because they are heat-sensitive and water-soluble.
• Drying can reduce the vitamin A, B and C content of food.
• Heat treatment changes the sensory properties of milk by affecting its flavour, colour and texture.
• Drying milk to make milk powder produces greater changes to flavour, colour and texture than liquid milk heat treatments and also reduces vitamin content.
• Secondary processing is the further transformation of primary processed ingredients into foods for consumption or further manufacture.
• Common secondary processing methods include mixing, shaping, cooking, baking, roasting, frying, fermentation, freezing, canning and fortification.
• Secondary processing can improve palatability and convenience, but it can also further change nutrient content and sensory characteristics.
• Bread production from flour involves mixing ingredients, kneading the dough, fermenting, shaping, proving, baking and cooling.
• Kneading develops gluten, which gives bread dough structure and elasticity.
• Fermentation and proving allow yeast to produce carbon dioxide, which makes bread dough rise before and during baking.
• Pasta production from flour involves mixing, kneading, resting, rolling, shaping and sometimes drying the dough.
• Resting pasta dough allows the gluten to relax, making the dough easier to roll and shape.
• Cheese production from milk involves heat treatment, adding starter cultures, adding rennet, setting the curd, cutting the curd, draining the whey, pressing, salting and ageing.
• Starter cultures in cheese making ferment lactose to lactic acid, which lowers pH and begins coagulation.
• Rennet is an enzyme that helps milk separate into curds and whey during cheese making.
• Salting cheese helps develop the correct texture and flavour and also helps preserve the cheese.
• Yoghurt production from milk involves pasteurising, cooling, adding starter bacteria, incubating, cooling and refrigerated storage.
• During yoghurt production, lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose to lactic acid, which thickens the milk and gives yoghurt its sour flavour.
• Incubation keeps yoghurt warm enough for bacterial fermentation to take place.
• Straining yoghurt removes some whey and produces a thicker product such as Greek yoghurt.
• Fruit, flavours or sweeteners are usually added to yoghurt after fermentation.
• Jam production is a secondary process in which fruit is boiled with sugar so that the mixture concentrates, preserves the fruit and can set on cooling.
• Jam sets when enough pectin is present and the correct balance of fruit, sugar and acid is achieved.
• Food technology can be used to modify foods so that they provide additional health benefits or improved nutritional value.
• Cholesterol-lowering spreads often contain plant sterols or stanols that reduce the absorption of cholesterol in the gut.
• Regular consumption of cholesterol-lowering spreads can help lower blood cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
• High blood cholesterol increases the risk of fatty deposits building up in arteries, which can lead to atherosclerosis and heart attacks.
• Fortified foods have nutrients added that are not naturally present in the food in significant amounts.
• Enriched foods have nutrients added to replace nutrients lost during processing.
• Fortification can reduce the risk of nutrient deficiencies when the fortified food is eaten regularly by the target group.
• In the UK, white flour must have thiamin, niacin, iron and calcium added during milling.
• Thiamin and niacin added to white flour help the body release energy from carbohydrates.
• Iron added to white flour helps reduce the risk of iron-deficiency anaemia.
• Calcium added to white flour supports healthy bones and teeth and helps reduce the risk of rickets in children.
• Many breakfast cereals are fortified with iron and folic acid.
• Folic acid is needed for normal cell division, and adequate intake before and during early pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects in the foetus.
• Vitamins A and D are added to fats and low-fat spreads because processing lowers the natural amounts present.
• Vitamin A is needed for normal vision, especially in dim light.
• Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium and helps prevent rickets in children.
• Food additives are substances added to foods to improve appearance, flavour, texture, shelf life or processing.
• In the UK, food additives must be safety assessed and approved, and most approved additives must be listed on labels, often by using E numbers.
• Colourings are added to food to improve or standardise its appearance.
• Emulsifiers help oil and water stay mixed, which keeps products such as mayonnaise and low-fat spreads stable.
• Stabilisers help foods such as jams and jellies keep a consistent texture.
• Flavourings are added to strengthen, restore or modify the taste and smell of food.
• Preservatives slow spoilage caused by microorganisms, so they increase shelf life and can reduce food waste.
• A positive aspect of additives is that they can improve consistency, convenience and keeping quality in manufactured foods.
• A negative aspect of additives is that some artificial colourings have been linked with hyperactivity in some children.
• Some emulsifiers, stabilisers and flavourings can cause bloating, flatulence or allergic reactions in sensitive people.
• Genes determine many of the inherited characteristics of living organisms.
• Genetically modified foods come from organisms whose genetic material has been altered to introduce a desired characteristic.
• Genetically modified crops can be developed with improved nutrient content, such as golden rice, which has been modified to provide more beta-carotene for vitamin A production.
• Genetically modified crops can be developed to tolerate drought or flooding, which can make food production more reliable.
• Some genetically modified crops are engineered to tolerate particular herbicides or resist insect pests, which can reduce crop losses and sometimes reduce pesticide use.
• Positive aspects of genetically modified foods include potentially higher yields, longer storage life and improved nutrient content.
• Negative aspects of genetically modified foods include concerns about gene transfer to wild plants, resistant pests, environmental effects and consumer distrust.
• Food products that are genetically modified or contain genetically modified ingredients must be clearly labelled.

• Calculate the cost of a recipe by pricing the proportion of each pack used and dividing the total by the number of portions.
• Justify the choice of a dish by referring to factors such as budget, time available, lifestyle, physical activity level, seasonality and personal preference.
• Adapt a recipe to meet a religious, ethical or medical requirement by substituting suitable ingredients without making the finished dish unacceptable to the intended consumer.
• Select ingredients and preparation methods that avoid allergen or gluten cross-contamination when cooking for people with food allergies, coeliac disease or lactose intolerance.
• Interpret a food label to identify mandatory information, including the product name, ingredients, allergens, net quantity, date marks, storage instructions and business details.
• Compare nutrition panels using values per 100 g or per 100 ml so that similar products can be judged fairly.
• Interpret front-of-pack traffic light colours and reference intake percentages to evaluate whether a food is high, medium or low in fat, saturates, sugars and salt.
• Evaluate how provenance claims, serving suggestions and marketing techniques such as meal deals, special offers or point-of-sale displays may influence consumer choice.
• Compare British cuisine with at least one international cuisine by analysing distinctive ingredients, equipment, cooking methods, presentation styles and eating patterns.
• Plan a dish from a chosen cuisine that reflects authentic ingredients, characteristic methods and an appropriate style of serving.
• Select the most suitable sensory testing method, including paired preference, hedonic, triangle, ranking, rating or profiling, for a specific product question.
• Carry out sensory testing under controlled conditions by using coded samples, consistent portions, random order, separate seating and palate cleansers.
• Interpret sensory test results to decide whether products differ, which sample is preferred or how strongly specific attributes are perceived.
• Adapt seasoning, texture, aroma or appearance during cooking in response to sensory evaluation findings.
• Classify ingredients as grown, reared or caught and explain how that source affects recipe choice and provenance.
• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of organic, conventional, free-range and intensive production methods for cost, availability, animal welfare and environmental impact.
• Compare locally produced, seasonal and genetically modified foods in terms of sustainability, food security, price, quality and consumer acceptability.
• Explain how transport, packaging and food waste at home, in retail and in production affect the environmental impact and carbon footprint of food.
• Compare primary and secondary processing to explain how methods such as milling, pasteurisation, fermentation, drying and boiling change a food's safety, shelf life, sensory properties and nutrient content.
• Evaluate a fortified, modified or additive-containing food product by judging its claimed health benefit, sensory quality and possible drawbacks from the ingredients and label information.