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neurologyYou need to know

• A landscape is the overall character of an area produced by the interaction of natural and human elements.
• The character of a landscape depends first on its geology.
• Geology influences relief, and relief then affects how people use and interact with a place.
• Resistant rocks such as slate can create steep upland landscapes and support quarrying in places such as North Wales.
• The UK has a varied physical landscape that includes upland areas, lowland areas, and major river systems.
• Upland areas are mainly found in the north and west of the UK, including much of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and northern England.
• Major UK upland areas include the Grampian Mountains, the Lake District, and Snowdonia.
• Lowland areas are mainly found in the south and east of the UK, including central and southern England.
• Major UK lowland areas include the Cotswolds, Norfolk, and the South Downs.
• Upland landscapes are typically more rugged and uneven than lowland landscapes.
• Many major UK cities developed in lowland areas and along major rivers because these locations are easier to build on and use for transport.
• Boulder clay is a soft material deposited by glaciers that erodes easily and forms parts of coasts such as the Holderness Coast.
• The character of a landscape is the set of visible features created by the combination of natural elements, including geology and relief, and human activities such as land use and settlement.
• Coastline features are landforms such as arches, stacks, and spits that are created by erosion and deposition along coasts.
• An estuary is the tidal mouth of a large river where the tide meets the river flow.
• The River Severn estuary at Bristol and the River Mersey estuary at Liverpool are examples of UK estuaries.
• Glaciated uplands are mountainous regions that have been shaped by glacial processes.
• Snowdonia and the Lake District are examples of glaciated upland landscapes in the UK.
• The Grampian Mountains are part of the Scottish Highlands and include Ben Nevis.
• The Grampian Mountains are characterised by steep, rocky terrain and a sparse population.
• The Lake District is an upland area in north-west England that contains prominent glacial landforms.
• A landscape is the appearance of an area as shaped by the interaction of physical and human elements.
• Lowlands are gently sloping or flat areas of land found mainly in the south and east of the UK.
• Norfolk and the South Downs are examples of lowland areas in the UK.
• Relief is the shape of the land in terms of elevation and slope.
• Relief is influenced by geology and by past glacial activity.
• Rugged describes land that is rocky and uneven and is commonly used to describe upland areas such as the Highlands and Snowdonia.
• Snowdonia is a glaciated upland area in North Wales formed from ancient volcanic rock.
• Snowdonia is known for steep valleys and mountainous terrain.
• The South Downs are a range of chalk hills that form a lowland landscape in southern England.
• Upland areas are regions of high elevation with steep relief that are usually found in the north and west of the UK.
• The Grampians, the Lake District, and Snowdonia are examples of UK upland areas.
• River long and cross profiles show how river and valley characteristics change downstream from the source to the mouth.
• A river long profile shows how the river gradient changes from the source to the mouth.
• Most river long profiles are concave, with a steep gradient in the upper course, a gentler gradient in the middle course, and an almost flat gradient near the mouth.
• A river cross profile is a cross-section taken from one bank to the other.
• Cross profiles taken in the upper, middle and lower courses show how both the river channel and the valley change downstream.
• In the upper course, the river channel is narrow, shallow, rough-bedded and relatively low in velocity.
• In the upper course, valley sides are steep, bedload is large, friction is high, and vertical erosion is the dominant process.
• In the middle course, the river channel becomes wider and deeper than in the upper course.
• In the middle course, valley sides become gentler, the channel bed becomes smoother, friction decreases, and lateral erosion becomes more important.
• In the middle course, the material carried by the river becomes smaller and the river velocity is greater than in the upper course.
• In the lower course, the river channel is widest and deepest and flows across a broad, flat floodplain.
• In the lower course, the channel bed is smooth, friction is lowest, and deposition becomes the dominant process.
• The cross profile of a river valley changes downstream because valley sides become less steep, valley height decreases, and the valley floor widens into a floodplain.
• River channel shape and valley shape are different because channel shape describes the river itself, while valley shape describes the land on either side of the river channel.
• Erosion is the wearing away of the river channel and valley sides by moving water and its load.
• Hydraulic action erodes a river channel through the force of moving water.
• Abrasion erodes a river channel when the river's load scrapes against the bed and banks.
• Attrition makes sediment smaller and rounder as particles collide with one another during transport.
• Solution, also called corrosion, erodes rock when soluble material is dissolved by river water.
• Vertical erosion deepens the river channel and valley and is most important in the upper course.
• Lateral erosion widens the river channel and valley and is most important in the middle and lower courses.
• Rivers transport material by traction, saltation, suspension and solution.
• Traction transports large rocks by rolling them along the river bed.
• Saltation transports small pebbles by bouncing them along the river bed.
• Suspension transports fine, light material within the water.
• Solution transports dissolved minerals within the water.
• Deposition happens when a river loses energy and can no longer carry all of its load.
• Deposition is more likely when discharge falls, gradient decreases, or water flows more slowly on the inside of a bend or in a shallower channel.
• Deposition also occurs when a river enters a lake, estuary or sea because the gradient becomes gentler and flow is reduced.
• The heaviest material is deposited first as bedload.
• Larger rocks are usually moved only short distances before deposition, especially during high discharge in the upper course.
• Finer alluvium such as sand and silt is carried further downstream than larger rocks.
• Dissolved material is usually carried out to sea in solution.
• Distinctive fluvial landforms develop through different combinations of erosion and deposition along a river's course.
• Upland river landscapes are characterised by erosional landforms such as waterfalls, gorges, V-shaped valleys and interlocking spurs.
• Lowland river landscapes are characterised by mixed and depositional landforms such as meanders, oxbow lakes, floodplains, levees and estuaries.
• A waterfall forms where the riverbed has a sudden drop, often because a layer of hard rock lies above softer rock.
• Hydraulic action and abrasion erode the softer rock beneath a waterfall more quickly than the harder rock above it.
• Faster erosion of softer rock undercuts the hard rock and creates a plunge pool and an unsupported overhang.
• Repeated collapse of the overhang deepens the plunge pool and causes the waterfall to retreat upstream.
• Retreat of a waterfall leaves a steep-sided gorge.
• V-shaped valleys form in the upper course where vertical erosion deepens the river channel.
• Weathering and mass movement cause material from the valley sides to collapse into the river and help create the steep sides of a V-shaped valley.
• Interlocking spurs form in the upper course where the river winds around more resistant ridges in upland valleys.
• Meanders become larger in lowland areas where lateral erosion is the dominant process.
• The fastest flow in a meander, called the thalweg, is on the outside bend where erosion undercuts the bank to form a river cliff.
• The slowest flow in a meander is on the inside bend where deposition forms a slip-off slope.
• Erosion on one side of a meander and deposition on the other side cause the meander to migrate across the valley floor.
• Oxbow lakes form when erosion on the outer bends of a meander narrows the meander neck.
• During flood conditions, a river may cut through a narrow meander neck and take a straighter course.
• Deposition seals the ends of the abandoned meander and leaves an oxbow lake cut off from the main river channel.
• Floodplains are flat areas of land on either side of a river.
• Floodplains develop as meanders migrate across the valley and deposit alluvium during floods.
• When a river floods, water spreads across the floodplain, friction increases, velocity falls, and sediment is deposited.
• Levees are natural embankments formed when the heaviest sediment is deposited closest to the river channel during floods.
• An estuary is the tidal mouth of a river where freshwater meets seawater.
• Estuarine mudflats and salt marshes form through the interaction of river deposition and tidal processes.
• In an estuary, incoming tidal sediment mixes with river sediment and deposition increases as river velocity falls.
• Layers of deposited sediment build up into mudflats, especially where they are exposed at low tide.
• Salt marshes develop when vegetation colonises estuarine mudflats.
• The River Tees is in north-east England and flows eastwards from the Pennines into the North Sea.
• The River Tees is about 85 miles from source to mouth.
• High Force on the River Tees is the highest waterfall in England.
• High Force formed where hard igneous dolerite, locally called whinstone, lies above softer sedimentary limestone.
• Faster erosion of limestone than dolerite at High Force has undercut the hard rock and caused the waterfall to retreat, leaving a steep-sided gorge.
• Meanders form in the middle and lower course of the River Tees, including in the area south-east of Darlington.
• Floodplains and levees have formed in the middle and lower course of the River Tees through repeated flooding.
• The River Tees is in north-east England, rises at Cross Fell in the Pennines and flows east into the North Sea.
• The source of the River Tees is in saturated peat bog about 893 metres above sea level in an area that receives more than 2,000 millimetres of rain each year.
• Impermeable rock, saturated peat and steep relief in the River Tees basin reduce infiltration and increase surface runoff.
• In the upper course of the River Tees, hard impermeable rock and dominant vertical erosion have created a V-shaped valley.
• Interlocking spurs have formed in the upper course of the River Tees where the river winds around higher land.
• High Force is a 21 metre waterfall in the upper course of the River Tees.
• High Force formed where hard igneous Whin Sill overlies softer sandstone and shale, so differential erosion created the waterfall.
• Retreat of High Force has cut a gorge about 500 metres long.
• In the middle course of the River Tees, lateral erosion has produced meanders.
• Yarm is built within a large meander of the River Tees, and oxbow lakes have formed in the surrounding area.
• Natural levees have formed along parts of the River Tees floodplain where flooding has deposited sediment.
• The lower course of the River Tees enters an estuary at Teesside.
• The Tees estuary contains mudflats, including Seal Sands, alongside major petrochemical industry.
• Flood risk along the River Tees is increased by high rainfall, steep slopes, impermeable geology, saturated peat and urban development in lower-course settlements such as Middlesbrough and Yarm.
• Cow Green Reservoir, built in 1970, is a hard engineering scheme that regulates the flow of the River Tees to reduce flooding.
• The flood defence scheme at Yarm combines hard and soft engineering, including embankments, improved flood warnings and floodplain zoning.
• The Yarm flood defence scheme cost about £2.1 million.
• Embankments at Yarm increase the capacity of the River Tees channel and reduce flood risk.
• Channel straightening at the Mandale Loop near Stockton cut through a large meander, shortened the river by about 4 kilometres and allowed water to move downstream more quickly.
• Dredging in the lower River Tees has been used to maintain a deeper channel.
• Flood management on the River Tees helps protect major roads and railway lines from disruption.
• Flood warning systems on the River Tees give people more time to prepare for flooding and can reduce stress.
• Flood management around the Tees Barrage has created opportunities for recreation.
• River Tees flood management is expected to protect almost 8,500 homes and more than 1,200 commercial properties, preventing millions of pounds of flood damage.
• Environmental effects of River Tees flood management include the creation of new ponds and wildlife habitats.
• Some material for earth embankments on the River Tees was extracted locally.
• Construction of Cow Green Reservoir required large areas of land to be cleared.
• Flooding happens when river discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel and water flows over the banks onto the surrounding land.
• Heavy or prolonged rainfall is a common cause of river flooding.
• Lag time is the time taken for precipitation to reach the river channel after it falls.
• A short lag time increases flood risk because river discharge rises more quickly.
• Human and physical factors that increase overland flow shorten lag time and make flooding more likely.
• Deforestation increases flood risk because reduced interception and infiltration lead to greater overland flow.
• Urbanisation increases flood risk because impermeable surfaces such as concrete and tarmac increase overland flow and rapid drainage into rivers.
• Some agricultural practices increase flood risk because bare soil and downslope ploughing increase overland flow.
• Climate change may increase flood risk by increasing the frequency and intensity of storms.
• Steep relief increases flood risk because water flows downhill quickly and infiltration is reduced.
• Impermeable rock increases flood risk because percolation is reduced and more water travels as overland flow.
• Frozen, saturated, compacted and clay-rich soils increase flood risk because they reduce infiltration.
• Heavy or prolonged rainfall increases overland flow when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration rate.
• Rising temperatures after snowfall can increase flood risk by causing rapid snowmelt.
• In Northern Europe, river flooding is more common in autumn and winter because rainfall is more frequent.
• High drainage density increases flood risk because many tributaries deliver water quickly to the main river channel.
• Sparse vegetation increases flood risk because reduced interception allows more water to reach the river rapidly.
• A flood hydrograph shows how river discharge changes after a storm event, usually over a short period such as 24 hours.
• The main features of a flood hydrograph are base flow, peak rainfall, rising limb, peak discharge, lag time and the recessional limb.
• Factors that increase surface runoff produce a short lag time, a steep rising limb and a high peak discharge, which increase flood risk.
• Factors that reduce surface runoff produce a longer lag time, a gentler rising limb and a lower peak discharge, which reduce flood risk.
• The amount and duration of precipitation cannot be controlled directly, but flood management can reduce the severity and impact of flooding.
• Hard engineering manages floods by building structures or altering the river channel.
• Soft engineering manages floods by working with natural river processes and the surrounding environment.
• Dams and reservoirs control river flow by blocking the river and releasing water in a controlled way.
• Dams and reservoirs can reduce flood risk while also providing water storage, hydroelectric power and recreational opportunities.
• Dams and reservoirs are expensive and can flood farmland and homes, displace people, disrupt ecosystems and gradually silt up.
• Embankments and levees reduce flood risk by artificially raising river banks and increasing channel capacity.
• Embankments and levees can be effective but may be visually unattractive.
• Straightening a river channel removes meanders so that water moves downstream more quickly.
• Straightening channels can improve navigation but may increase flood risk downstream and damage river ecosystems.
• Flood relief channels divert excess water around high-value areas during periods of high discharge.
• Flood relief channels can reduce flood risk and insurance costs in protected areas and may create new habitats.
• Flood relief channels are expensive, need regular maintenance, can disrupt existing habitats and may be visually unattractive.
• River restoration reduces flood risk by returning rivers to a more natural state with meanders and wetland areas that slow the flow of water.
• River restoration can create habitats and restore wetlands, but it can be expensive and allows some land to flood.
• Floodplain zoning reduces flood damage by restricting high-value development in areas at greatest risk of flooding.
• Floodplain zoning is a low-cost strategy that conserves floodplain and wetland habitats, but it can restrict building and economic development.
• Afforestation reduces flood risk because tree planting increases interception and infiltration and slows water transfer to the river.
• Afforestation is relatively inexpensive and can absorb and store CO2, but it may increase soil acidity and reduce farmland.
• Flood warnings reduce the impact of flooding by giving people time to prepare and evacuate.
• Flood warning systems are less expensive than many hard engineering schemes, but monitoring equipment is costly and some people may ignore warnings.
• Abrasion is a type of river erosion in which rocks and pebbles carried by the river scrape and wear away the bed and banks.
• Alluvium is fine sediment such as silt and sand that a river deposits, especially during floods.
• Attrition is the process by which rocks and pebbles carried by a river collide and break into smaller, smoother pieces.
• A cross profile is a cross-section of a river channel and valley that shows how their shapes change from the upper course to the lower course.
• Deposition happens when a river loses energy and drops the sediment it has been carrying.
• Gradient is the slope of a riverbed, which is usually steepest in the upper course and becomes gentler towards the lower course.
• Hydraulic action is erosion caused by the force of river water hitting the banks and forcing air into cracks.
• Lateral erosion is erosion that widens a river valley and is most dominant in the middle and lower courses.
• A long profile is a side view of a river from its source to its mouth that shows changes in height along its course.
• Saltation is a type of river transport in which small pebbles bounce along the riverbed.
• Solution transport is the movement of dissolved minerals within river water.
• Suspension is a type of river transport in which fine, light material is carried within the flow of the river.
• Traction is a type of river transport in which large rocks are rolled along the riverbed by the force of the water.
• Vertical erosion is downward erosion that deepens a river valley and is most dominant in the upper course.
• A floodplain is the wide, flat land on either side of a river that is formed mainly by deposition during floods.
• A gorge is a steep-sided valley formed by the upstream retreat of a waterfall.
• High Force is England's tallest waterfall and is located on the River Tees where resistant dolerite overlies softer rock.
• Interlocking spurs are ridges of land in the upper course around which a river winds.
• Levees are raised river banks formed when sediment is deposited during flooding.
• A meander is a bend in a river that is typically found in the middle and lower courses.
• Mudflats are areas of fine sediment deposited in estuaries.
• An oxbow lake is a curved lake formed when a meander is cut off from the main river channel.
• A plunge pool is a deep hollow at the base of a waterfall formed mainly by hydraulic action and abrasion.
• A river cliff is the steep outer bank of a meander formed by erosion.
• A salt marsh is a coastal wetland that forms when estuary mudflats build up and become colonised by vegetation.
• A slip-off slope is the gently sloping inner bank of a meander where deposition occurs.
• A V-shaped valley is a steep-sided valley formed mainly by vertical erosion in the upper course of a river.
• A waterfall is a sudden drop in a river's course that commonly forms where hard rock lies above softer rock.
• Afforestation is the planting of trees to increase interception and reduce surface run-off.
• Channel straightening is a hard engineering method that removes meanders to make river water flow faster.
• Dams and reservoirs are large barriers and storage areas used to control river flow and store water.
• Embankments are raised river banks built to hold more water in the channel and reduce flood risk.
• Flood forecasting uses weather data and hydrographs to predict floods and warn communities.
• Floodplain zoning is the control of land use near rivers to reduce flood damage.
• Flood relief channels are artificial channels built to divert excess water during periods of high discharge.
• Hard engineering is river management that uses man-made structures such as dams and embankments to control natural processes.
• A hydrograph is a graph that shows how river discharge changes over time after a rainfall event.
• Lag time is the time between peak rainfall and peak river discharge on a hydrograph.
• Peak discharge is the highest volume of water flowing in a river after rainfall.
• The recessional limb is the section of a hydrograph that shows river discharge falling after peak flow.
• River restoration is the process of returning a river to a more natural state to reduce flood risk and improve habitats.
• Soft engineering is river management that works with natural processes through methods such as floodplain zoning and afforestation.

• Locate the UK's major upland areas, major lowland areas and major river systems on an outline map.
• Classify a named UK landscape as upland or lowland by using evidence about elevation, slope and relief.
• Explain how geology influences relief and how relief shapes the character of a UK landscape.
• Compare upland and lowland landscapes by using relief, ruggedness and typical human uses.
• Draw a labelled long profile to show how a river's gradient changes from source to mouth.
• Compare upper-course, middle-course and lower-course cross profiles by using channel width, depth, valley sides and floodplain width.
• Identify whether hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition or solution is operating in a river-process description.
• Select traction, saltation, suspension or solution as the most likely transport process for a given load.
• Explain why deposition is most likely where velocity falls, gradient decreases or water becomes shallower.
• Sequence the formation of a waterfall and gorge from differential erosion to upstream retreat.
• Explain how vertical erosion, weathering and mass movement create a V-shaped valley.
• Identify interlocking spurs on a map, photograph or cross section and explain why the river winds around them.
• Annotate a meander with the thalweg, river cliff and slip-off slope and relate each feature to erosion or deposition.
• Explain how erosion and deposition turn a meander into an oxbow lake during high discharge.
• Interpret evidence for the formation of floodplains, levees and estuaries from maps, photographs or written descriptions.
• Locate major erosional and depositional landforms along the River Tees from source to mouth.
• Explain how physical factors such as rainfall, relief, geology and saturated ground increase flood risk in a drainage basin.
• Explain how human factors such as urbanisation, deforestation and farming practices increase surface runoff and shorten lag time.
• Interpret a flood hydrograph by identifying lag time, rising limb, peak discharge and the recessional limb and linking them to flood risk.
• Evaluate the costs and benefits of named flood-management strategies or a named UK scheme by using social, economic and environmental evidence.