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neurologyYou need to know

• A hazard is an event with the potential to cause harm to people, the environment or the economy.
• A natural hazard is an event caused by environmental processes that would occur without human presence.
• A natural event becomes a hazard because it has the potential to affect people and their property.
• A disaster occurs when a hazard causes actual harm to people, the environment or the economy.
• Natural hazards can be classified by their causes into tectonic, geomorphological, atmospheric and biological categories.
• Tectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and tsunamis.
• Geomorphological hazards include floods and landslides.
• Atmospheric hazards include tropical storms, droughts and tornadoes.
• Hazard risk is the chance that an area or population will be affected by a natural hazard.
• Population growth increases hazard risk because more people live in areas vulnerable to natural hazards.
• Urbanisation and high population density increase hazard risk because more people are concentrated in places that may be affected.
• The frequency and magnitude of hazard events affect hazard risk because larger and more frequent events usually create greater danger.
• Level of development affects hazard risk because high income countries are usually better prepared for and better able to cope with natural hazards than low income countries and newly emerging economies.
• Prediction affects hazard risk because hazards that cannot be predicted, such as earthquakes, give people little or no warning.
• Human activities such as deforestation and urbanisation can increase hazard risk.
• An atmospheric hazard is a natural hazard caused by weather or climate conditions, including tropical storms, droughts and tornadoes.
• A disaster occurs when a hazard event causes actual harm to people, the environment or the economy.
• A country's level of development affects how well it can prepare for and respond to natural hazards, so high-income countries usually cope better than low-income countries and newly emerging economies.
• A geomorphological hazard is a natural hazard caused by processes that shape the Earth's surface, including floods and landslides.
• Magnitude is a measure of the size or strength of a hazard event, such as the energy released by an earthquake.
• A natural hazard is a natural event such as an earthquake, storm or flood that has the potential to cause harm to people or property.
• A natural event is a naturally occurring physical phenomenon that may or may not become a hazard depending on whether it affects people.
• Prediction is the attempt to forecast when and where a natural hazard will happen and how severe its impacts will be.
• Some natural hazards, including earthquakes, are very difficult to predict accurately.
• Population density is the number of people living in an area, and higher population density usually increases vulnerability to natural hazards.
• A tectonic hazard is a natural hazard caused by movement of the Earth's plates, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.
• A tropical storm is a large storm system with strong winds and heavy rain that forms over warm ocean water and is also called a hurricane or cyclone.
• Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of people living in towns and cities, which can increase exposure to natural hazards.
• A volcanic eruption is the release of magma, gases and ash from a volcano, often explosively.
• Natural hazards pose major risks to people and property.
• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by physical processes explained by plate tectonics theory.
• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are distributed globally in patterns that are closely related to plate margins.
• Physical processes at constructive, destructive and conservative plate margins produce different patterns of earthquake and volcanic activity.
• The primary and secondary effects of a tectonic hazard can differ greatly.
• Immediate and long-term responses to a tectonic hazard vary between places.
• The effects of, and responses to, tectonic hazards vary between areas with contrasting levels of wealth.
• People continue to live in areas at risk from tectonic hazards for economic, social and environmental reasons.
• Monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the risks and impacts of tectonic hazards.
• Global atmospheric circulation helps to determine global patterns of weather and climate.
• The general atmospheric circulation model includes pressure belts and surface winds.
• Tropical storms develop only when specific physical conditions are present.
• Tropical storms occur in distinct global distribution patterns and are linked to general atmospheric circulation.
• Tropical storms have a characteristic structure and set of features.
• Climate change may alter the distribution, frequency and intensity of tropical storms.
• Tropical storms have significant primary and secondary effects on people and the environment.
• Immediate and long-term responses are used to manage the effects of tropical storms.
• Monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the effects of tropical storms.
• The United Kingdom experiences a range of weather hazards.
• Recent extreme weather events in the United Kingdom have identifiable causes and create social, economic and environmental impacts.
• Management strategies can reduce the risks created by extreme weather events in the United Kingdom.
• There is evidence that weather in the United Kingdom is becoming more extreme.
• Climate change is caused by both natural and human factors.
• Evidence from the Quaternary period to the present shows that climate has changed over time.
• Natural causes of climate change include orbital changes, volcanic activity and variations in solar output.
• Human causes of climate change include the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture and deforestation.
• Climate change has a range of effects on people and the environment.
• Managing climate change includes mitigation, which reduces the causes of climate change.
• Mitigation strategies include alternative energy production, carbon capture, planting trees and international agreements.
• Managing climate change also includes adaptation, which responds to the effects of climate change.
• Adaptation strategies include changing agricultural systems, managing water supply and reducing risk from rising sea levels.
• Tectonic hazards are natural hazards caused by the movement of tectonic plates, including earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• The Earth has four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and crust.
• The inner core is a solid layer of iron and nickel about 1,400 km in diameter with temperatures of about 5,500°C.
• The outer core is a semi-molten metal layer about 2,100 km thick with temperatures of about 5,000 to 5,500°C.
• The mantle is a semi-molten layer about 2,900 km thick and is less dense than the outer core.
• The crust is the Earth's outer layer and its thickness varies.
• Oceanic crust is thinner, denser and heavier than continental crust.
• Continental crust is thicker, lighter and usually much older than oceanic crust.
• Oceanic crust is continually created and destroyed by plate movement, but continental crust is not usually destroyed.
• The Earth's crust is broken into tectonic plates.
• Tectonic plates move on top of the semi-molten mantle.
• Plate tectonic theory originally explained plate movement by convection currents in the mantle, but current theory emphasises slab pull from sinking oceanic plates.
• A plate boundary, or plate margin, is the place where two tectonic plates meet.
• Earthquakes occur at all types of plate boundary.
• About 90% of earthquakes occur around the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• Most volcanoes occur at constructive and destructive plate boundaries.
• About 75% of active volcanoes are located around the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• Hotspots are places away from plate boundaries where columns of magma rise through the Earth's crust.
• Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes most commonly occur at or near plate boundaries.
• Earthquakes happen when moving tectonic plates become stuck, pressure builds, and the plates suddenly jolt free to release energy.
• The focus is the point inside the Earth where an earthquake starts.
• The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus.
• Earthquake energy travels through the Earth's crust as seismic waves.
• The three main types of plate boundary are constructive, destructive and conservative.
• At a constructive plate boundary, plates move apart and rising magma fills the gap.
• Constructive plate boundaries can cause both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
• The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a constructive plate boundary.
• At a destructive plate boundary, plates move together and the denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the lighter continental plate.
• Subduction at a destructive plate boundary creates friction and heat, which melt crust to form magma.
• Magma rises through cracks in the crust at destructive plate boundaries, erupts as lava and forms volcanoes.
• Destructive plate boundaries can cause both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
• The boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate is an example of a destructive plate boundary.
• At a conservative plate boundary, plates move past each other in opposite directions or in the same direction at different speeds.
• Conservative plate boundaries cause earthquakes but not volcanic eruptions.
• Primary effects are the direct effects of an earthquake or volcanic eruption.
• Secondary effects are the later effects caused by the primary impacts of an earthquake or volcanic eruption.
• Primary effects of volcanic eruptions include ash, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, gas emissions and volcanic bombs.
• Primary effects of earthquakes include ground shaking and gas emissions.
• Secondary effects of volcanic eruptions include lahars, acidification, landslides, climate change, fires and floods.
• Secondary effects of earthquakes include building collapse, landslides, gas leaks, fires, soil liquefaction, subsidence, mudflows and tsunamis.
• Responses to tectonic hazards are usually divided into immediate responses in the days and weeks after the event and long-term responses in the months and years after the event.
• Immediate responses to tectonic hazards include search and rescue, emergency medical care, temporary shelter, food and clean water supplies, body recovery, warnings, evacuation, and the clearance of ash and debris.
• Long-term responses to tectonic hazards include rebuilding homes and infrastructure, tightening building regulations, improving drills, evacuation plans and warning systems, and restoring water, gas and electricity supplies.
• Long-term recovery after a tectonic hazard can also include financial support for farmers, improved government planning, and the use of eruption data to improve future predictions.
• In 2010, Chile, a high-income country on the western coast of South America, was struck by a magnitude 8.8 earthquake.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake happened at a destructive plate margin where the Nazca Plate is subducted beneath the South American Plate.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake killed about 500 people and injured about 12,000 people.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake destroyed about 220,000 homes, 4,500 schools and 56 hospitals.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake damaged 53 ports and Santiago Airport.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake disrupted power supplies, water supplies and communications.
• The total cost of the 2010 Chile earthquake was about US$30 billion.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake damaged about 1,500 km of roads.
• Landslides caused by the 2010 Chile earthquake cut off remote communities for many days.
• Tsunami waves triggered by the 2010 Chile earthquake struck coastal towns.
• The 2010 Chile earthquake also caused a fire at a chemical plant near Santiago.
• The tourism industry in Chile was badly affected by the 2010 earthquake.
• Emergency services responded quickly after the 2010 Chile earthquake.
• Temporary repairs restored Route 5, the main north-south highway, within 24 hours of the 2010 Chile earthquake.
• Within 10 days of the 2010 Chile earthquake, water and power supplies had been restored to about 90% of homes.
• About US$60 million was raised after the 2010 Chile earthquake.
• One month after the 2010 Chile earthquake, the Chilean government launched a rehousing plan to help about 200,000 households.
• Chile was able to rebuild after the 2010 earthquake largely through income from copper exports rather than relying on international aid.
• Full recovery from the 2010 Chile earthquake was expected to take up to four years.
• Responses to tectonic hazards vary with levels of wealth because higher-income countries usually have stronger infrastructure and emergency services, whereas lower-income countries are more dependent on foreign aid and may take longer to rebuild.
• Nepal in 2015 was a low-income, landlocked country with many remote rural communities, so earthquake recovery depended heavily on international aid and on restoring access to isolated areas.
• After the 2015 Nepal earthquake, around $3 billion of international aid was donated and many countries sent temporary shelters, medicines, food, water, clothing, search and rescue teams, and medical staff.
• About 90% of the Nepalese army was mobilised after the 2015 Nepal earthquake, tent cities were established in Kathmandu, and GIS crisis mapping was used to coordinate emergency relief.
• The Asian Development Bank gave Nepal a $3 million emergency grant immediately after the 2015 earthquake and later provided $200 million for rebuilding.
• Long-term responses to the 2015 Nepal earthquake included clearing landslides, repairing roads to remote communities, rebuilding schools, introducing earthquake drills, enforcing stricter building codes, and creating a government task force for future earthquakes.
• The Nepal earthquake of 25 April 2015 struck a low-income country in the Himalayas between China and India.
• The 2015 Nepal earthquake measured about magnitude 7.9.
• The 2015 Nepal earthquake happened at the boundary between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
• About 9,000 people were killed and about 19,000 people were injured by the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• About 7,000 schools and 26 hospitals were destroyed in the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• About 1.4 million people needed emergency food and water after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• The total cost of the 2015 Nepal earthquake was about US$5 billion.
• About 3 million people were left homeless by the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Landslides and avalanches triggered by the 2015 Nepal earthquake blocked roads and made access difficult.
• The 2015 Nepal earthquake increased the risk of flooding in some areas and forced further evacuations.
• Tourism income fell after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Food shortages developed after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Nepal requested international assistance immediately after the 2015 earthquake.
• Helicopters were used to rescue people stranded on Mount Everest after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• About 500,000 tents were provided after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Field hospitals were set up after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• The Red Cross helped with emergency relief after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Landslide debris was cleared from lakes and valleys after the 2015 Nepal earthquake to reduce flood risk.
• Nepal introduced stricter building controls after the 2015 earthquake.
• New trekking routes were opened on Mount Everest and climbing permits were extended after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• About US$247 million in aid was raised for long-term recovery after the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Around 600 million people were expected to live in tectonically active areas by 2025.
• Many people continue to live in tectonically active areas because tectonic environments can bring important economic and social benefits as well as serious risks.
• Volcanic ash and cooled lava create mineral-rich soils that can produce high crop yields.
• Active volcanic areas can attract tourists and create jobs in tourism and related services.
• Volcanic regions may contain valuable minerals and precious stones that can be mined and sold.
• Heat from magma close to the surface can be used to generate geothermal energy.
• Volcanic eruptions can create new land when lava and ash cool and solidify.
• Some people remain in tectonically active areas because they do not want to leave family, friends and established communities.
• Some people remain in tectonically active areas because they have always lived there and do not want to move.
• Improvements in monitoring and prediction can make people feel more confident that they are prepared for tectonic hazards.
• Mount Vesuvius is an active stratovolcano near Naples in Italy.
• The land around Mount Vesuvius has highly fertile volcanic soil that supports farming of crops such as grapes, fruit and olives.
• The area around Mount Vesuvius provides tourism opportunities, and the nearby city of Naples offers additional employment.
• The long interval since the last eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1944 gives some residents a false sense of safety.
• Some residents near Mount Vesuvius rely on modern monitoring technology to provide advance warning of a future eruption.
• Some people living near Mount Vesuvius have strong ancestral ties to the land, and others cannot afford to relocate.
• Many people living near Mount Vesuvius judge the short-term benefits of farming and employment to outweigh the long-term eruption risk.
• The four main strategies for managing tectonic hazards are monitoring, prediction, protection and planning.
• Volcanoes are monitored using seismometers, tiltmeters, lasers, remote sensing and gas sensors.
• Seismometers record earth movements and can detect small tremors that may signal volcanic activity or earthquake foreshocks.
• Tiltmeters and lasers can detect ground deformation that may show magma rising beneath a volcano.
• Satellite remote sensing can detect increases in heat that may indicate rising magma inside a volcano.
• Gas sensors can detect increases in gases such as sulphur and radon before some volcanic eruptions.
• Some earthquake zones are monitored for radon emissions and changes in groundwater levels before seismic events.
• Monitoring has made volcanic eruptions easier to forecast, but the exact timing of eruptions cannot be predicted precisely.
• Accurate prediction of earthquakes is not possible because the exact date, time and location of an earthquake cannot be forecast.
• Evacuation and exclusion zones reduce volcanic risk by moving people away from the most dangerous areas.
• Buildings cannot usually be protected from lava flows or pyroclastic flows.
• Roofs can be strengthened so that buildings are better able to support the weight of falling ash.
• Earthquake-resistant buildings can include reinforced steel cross-bracing and shutters on windows.
• Sea walls can reduce the impact of tsunamis generated by tectonic activity.
• Hazard mapping and risk assessment identify the places that are most at risk from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Hazard maps can be used to restrict development and move people, transport links and essential services such as hospitals away from high-risk areas.
• Planning for tectonic hazards includes evacuation plans, public education, practice drills, stockpiles of emergency supplies and training for emergency services.
• Higher-income countries are usually better able to monitor, predict and prepare for tectonic hazards than lower-income countries.
• An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake and can cause further damage.
• A collision boundary is a plate boundary where two continental plates push against each other, causing earthquakes and folding the land.
• A conservative, or transform, boundary is a plate boundary where two tectonic plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes but not volcanoes.
• A constructive plate boundary is a plate boundary where tectonic plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and create new crust, often forming volcanoes.
• Continental crust is the thicker, older and less dense part of the Earth's crust that forms the land masses.
• The crust is the Earth's outermost layer and is made up of oceanic and continental plates.
• A destructive plate boundary is a plate boundary where an oceanic plate sinks below a continental plate, generating friction, melting rock, and causing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.
• The focus is the point inside the Earth where an earthquake begins.
• Gas emissions are releases of gases such as sulphur dioxide or radon that are often linked to volcanic activity.
• A hotspot is a volcanic area away from plate boundaries where magma rises through the crust.
• The inner core is the solid innermost part of the Earth, made mainly of iron and nickel, with temperatures of about 5500°C.
• A lahar is a fast-moving volcanic mudflow formed when ash mixes with water.
• A landslide is the movement of rock and soil down a slope, often triggered by tectonic activity.
• Lava is molten rock that erupts from a volcano and solidifies on the Earth's surface.
• The mantle is a semi-molten layer beneath the crust that moves slowly and drives tectonic plate movement.
• Oceanic crust is the thinner and denser part of the Earth's crust found beneath the oceans.
• A plate boundary, or plate margin, is the place where two tectonic plates meet and where most tectonic activity occurs.
• Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement of the Earth's crustal plates and related processes such as earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Primary effects are the direct consequences of a tectonic event, such as lava flows or collapsing buildings.
• A pyroclastic flow is a very hot, fast-moving flow of ash and gases that rushes down the side of a volcano.
• Seismic waves are vibrations that spread out from an earthquake focus and cause shaking.
• A seismometer is an instrument that detects and records the strength and duration of earthquakes.
• Slab pull theory states that the weight of a subducting plate helps to drag the rest of the tectonic plate behind it.
• Subduction is the process in which a denser oceanic plate moves beneath a lighter continental plate and is forced into the mantle.
• Tectonic plates are large slabs of the Earth's crust that float on the mantle and cause geological activity when they move.
• A tsunami is a large, powerful sea wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption.
• Aid is emergency help provided after a disaster, including money, food, medical supplies and rescue workers.
• An emergency shelter is temporary accommodation provided to people who have lost their homes because of a hazard.
• An immediate response is action taken straight after a hazard event, such as rescue work, first aid, and providing food and water.
• A long-term response is rebuilding and recovery that takes place over months or years after a hazard event, including restoring housing and infrastructure.
• Secondary effects are indirect impacts that result from the primary effects of a hazard, such as homelessness, fires or disease.
• Rebuilding is the process of constructing new homes, schools and roads after they have been damaged or destroyed by a hazard.
• Rescue teams are groups of trained personnel who respond quickly to search for and help survivors.
• An evacuation plan is a strategy for moving people away from danger zones before a hazard event occurs.
• An exclusion zone is an area declared unsafe that people are not allowed to enter because of hazard risk.
• Geothermal energy is renewable energy generated from heat beneath the Earth's surface and is often found in tectonic regions.
• Hazard mapping is the creation of maps that identify the areas most at risk from hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Monitoring is the use of scientific instruments such as seismometers, gas sensors and satellites to track signs of tectonic activity.
• Planning is the use of strategies such as drills, emergency kits and education to prepare communities for hazard events.
• Prediction is the use of scientific data to try to forecast when and where a tectonic hazard might happen.
• Preparedness is the set of measures taken before a hazard to ensure that people and infrastructure are ready, such as drills and stockpiling supplies.
• Protection is the effort to make buildings and infrastructure safer, such as through earthquake-resistant design or sea walls for tsunamis.
• A tiltmeter is an instrument that detects slight changes in the shape of the ground and is often used to monitor volcanoes.
• Training is the education of emergency services and the public about what to do during a hazard event.
• Global atmospheric circulation is the worldwide movement of air that redistributes heat from the equator towards the poles.
• Global atmospheric circulation helps create broad patterns of weather and climate by transferring surplus energy away from low latitudes.
• Wind forms when air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure.
• Differences in air pressure exist because the Sun heats the Earth's surface unevenly.
• Insolation is greater at the equator than at the poles because of the Earth's curvature and the angle of the Earth's tilt.
• Uneven heating creates convection currents in which warm air rises and cooler air sinks.
• Global atmospheric circulation is commonly explained by a three-cell model made up of the Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells in each hemisphere.
• Air within each atmospheric cell circulates from the surface into the atmosphere and back to the surface.
• The Hadley cell extends from the equator to about 30° to 40° north and south.
• Near the equator, converging trade winds force hot, moist air to rise, producing low pressure, thunderstorms and heavy rainfall.
• Air descending in the subtropics creates high pressure, clear skies and the warm, dry conditions associated with many hot deserts.
• The Ferrel cell lies between the Hadley and Polar cells and generally occupies the mid-latitudes to about 60° to 70° north and south.
• The Ferrel cell circulates in the opposite direction to the Hadley and Polar cells and helps produce frequent unsettled weather in the mid-latitudes.
• The Polar cell extends from around 60° latitude to the poles and is the smallest and weakest atmospheric cell.
• In the Polar cell, very cold air sinks over the poles to create high pressure before flowing towards lower latitudes at the surface.
• The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of winds and ocean currents caused by the Earth's rotation.
• The Coriolis effect deflects moving air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Surface wind belts form from the interaction of global pressure belts, the three-cell circulation model and the Coriolis effect.
• Trade winds blow from subtropical high-pressure belts towards the equatorial low-pressure belt and are deflected westwards by the Coriolis effect.
• Westerlies blow from subtropical high-pressure belts towards subpolar low-pressure belts and are deflected eastwards by the Coriolis effect.
• Polar easterlies blow from polar high-pressure areas towards lower latitudes.
• The United Kingdom commonly experiences wet and windy weather because depressions are often driven in from the Atlantic by south-westerly winds.
• Tropical storms are intense rotating low-pressure systems that usually develop over warm tropical oceans.
• Tropical storms are called hurricanes in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico and the eastern Pacific near Mexico.
• Tropical storms are called typhoons in the South China Sea and the western Pacific Ocean.
• Tropical storms are called cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean and around northern Australia.
• Tropical storms usually form between about 5° and 30° north and south of the equator.
• Tropical storms do not usually form directly at the equator because the Coriolis effect there is too weak to make air spin.
• Tropical storms require sea-surface temperatures of at least 27°C so that large amounts of warm, moist air can rise rapidly.
• Tropical storms are more likely to form where surface winds converge and vertical wind shear is low.
• Intense solar heating near the equator warms ocean water and helps create the atmospheric conditions needed for tropical storms.
• Rising warm, moist air near the Intertropical Convergence Zone creates an area of very low pressure and frequent thunderstorms.
• Descending air in the Hadley cells helps create pressure differences that drive surface winds towards low-pressure areas.
• Trade winds help feed warm, moist air into developing tropical storms.
• The Coriolis effect causes air to spiral into tropical storms, producing anticlockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Tropical storms strengthen as rising air draws in more warm, moist air from the ocean surface.
• As moist air rises, it cools and condenses to form towering cumulonimbus clouds.
• The eyewall is the ring of tall storm clouds around the centre of a tropical storm and contains the strongest winds and heaviest rain.
• The eye is the calm central area of a tropical storm where air descends and conditions are drier and less cloudy.
• Tropical storms typically last between 7 and 14 days if they continue to receive heat and moisture from warm ocean water.
• Tropical storms usually have wind speeds of at least 119 km/h and can produce torrential rainfall, very high waves and storm surges.
• Tropical storms usually range from about 100 km to 1000 km in diameter.
• Wind speeds, cloud density and rainfall intensity are generally lower at the outer edges of a tropical storm than in the eyewall.
• Tropical storms are classified using the five-category Saffir-Simpson scale, which is based on sustained wind speed.
• Category 3 tropical storms are classed as major storms and have sustained winds of about 178 to 208 km/h.
• Category 5 tropical storms have sustained winds of more than 252 km/h.
• Tropical storms weaken and die out when they move over land or cooler water because they lose their supply of heat and moisture.
• Climate change is likely to increase the area of ocean that reaches 27°C, so tropical storms may form across a wider geographical area.
• Warmer oceans may stay above 27°C for longer each year, which could lengthen the tropical storm season and increase the annual number of storms.
• Rising global temperatures may increase the intensity of tropical storms and the damage they can cause.
• Primary effects of tropical storms are the immediate impacts of strong winds, intense rainfall and storm surges.
• Secondary effects of tropical storms develop after the storm has passed and often result from damage to homes, infrastructure, services and livelihoods.
• Tropical storms can destroy buildings and bridges and damage roads, railways, ports and airports.
• Tropical storms can damage electricity lines, break gas pipes and cause sewage systems to overflow.
• Tropical storms can flood rivers and coastal areas and destroy business premises.
• Destruction of homes can leave people homeless and increase distress, poverty, ill health and the risk of death.
• Rebuilding after a tropical storm can be very expensive, especially for people who do not have insurance.
• Damaged or blocked roads can prevent rescue teams, emergency vehicles and aid supplies from reaching affected communities.
• Power cuts caused by tropical storms can disrupt hospitals, life-support systems, shops and homes.
• Damage to gas and electricity infrastructure after a tropical storm can increase the risk of fires and explosions.
• Contaminated water supplies after a tropical storm increase the risk of water-borne disease and death.
• Floodwater from tropical storms can drown or injure people and can destroy crops, livestock and habitats, creating food shortages and possible famine.
• Tropical storms can cause business losses and unemployment.
• The impacts of a tropical storm are usually greater where there are more settlements and businesses because more people and property are exposed.
• Immediate responses to tropical storms include actions taken before landfall, during the storm and immediately after the storm has passed.
• Long-term responses to tropical storms aim to restore damaged areas and reduce the impact of future storms.
• Evacuating people before a tropical storm arrives can reduce casualties.
• Emergency services try to rescue stranded people and treat injuries as quickly as possible during and after a tropical storm.
• Recovering bodies after a tropical storm helps reduce the spread of water-borne and air-borne disease.
• Temporary shelters, emergency food, clean water, temporary power supplies and restored communications are essential immediate responses after a tropical storm.
• Overseas aid after a tropical storm may include workers, supplies, equipment and financial assistance.
• Digital disaster-response tools can help people confirm their safety, report damage and identify high-risk areas after a tropical storm.
• Improved forecasting can give people more time to evacuate before future tropical storms.
• Grants, subsidies and aid can help residents repair and strengthen properties after a tropical storm.
• Repairing flood defences, homes and infrastructure is an important long-term response to tropical storms.
• Stronger building regulations and planning controls can reduce future tropical storm damage by improving resilience and limiting development in high-risk areas.
• Governments may use incentives or tax breaks to encourage economic recovery and population return after a tropical storm.
• Typhoon Haiyan, locally called Yolanda, was one of the strongest tropical storms ever recorded to strike the Philippines.
• Typhoon Haiyan made landfall on 8 November 2013 as a Category 5 storm with sustained winds of more than 315 km/h.
• The Philippines lies in the western Pacific and experiences regular typhoons during the tropical storm season.
• Sea-surface temperatures of about 30°C helped to fuel Typhoon Haiyan.
• Rising sea levels can worsen storm surges, and land subsidence caused by groundwater abstraction can increase flood risk.
• Tacloban's position at the end of a funnel-shaped bay increased the height and destructiveness of Typhoon Haiyan's storm surge.
• Typhoon Haiyan had a central pressure of 895 mb, sustained winds of up to 196 mph, about 400 mm of rainfall and a storm surge of 5 to 6 m.
• Typhoon Haiyan caused about $13 billion of economic damage.
• Typhoon Haiyan damaged or destroyed about 1.1 million homes.
• Typhoon Haiyan displaced more than 4 million people and affected about 16 million people.
• Typhoon Haiyan caused 6201 deaths, left 1785 people missing and injured 28,626 people.
• Typhoon Haiyan destroyed major sugar-producing and rice-producing areas and caused severe agricultural losses.
• Typhoon Haiyan damaged about 175,000 acres of farmland in the Philippines.
• Typhoon Haiyan caused widespread flooding, damaged forests, polluted ecosystems with oil and sewage and severely affected fishing communities.
• The destruction of coconut plantations after Typhoon Haiyan had major long-term economic effects because coconut products were an important Philippine export.
• After Typhoon Haiyan, major concerns included disease, shortages of food, water, shelter and medicine, and the movement of refugees into less affected areas.
• Two months after Typhoon Haiyan, about 21,000 families were still living in 380 evacuation centres while waiting to be rehoused.
• The Philippines declared a state of national calamity and requested international help the day after Typhoon Haiyan struck.
• International aid after Typhoon Haiyan included food, water, temporary shelters, field hospitals, financial donations and 13,000 US soldiers.
• More than 1200 evacuation centres were set up for people made homeless by Typhoon Haiyan.
• Some aid to Typhoon Haiyan victims was delayed, and the United Nations admitted that its response had been too slow.
• Long-term recovery after Typhoon Haiyan included rebuilding airports, ports, roads and bridges.
• Cash-for-work schemes paid local people to clear debris after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Oxfam helped to fund replacement fishing boats after Typhoon Haiyan.
• More cyclone shelters were built farther from the coast after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines in November 2013 as a Category 5 tropical storm.
• About 6,300 people were killed by Typhoon Haiyan, many of them by the storm surge.
• Typhoon Haiyan displaced more than 600,000 people and destroyed about 40,000 homes.
• Typhoon Haiyan badly damaged Tacloban airport terminal.
• Typhoon Haiyan destroyed about 30,000 fishing boats.
• Strong winds from Typhoon Haiyan destroyed crops.
• More than 400 mm of rain from Typhoon Haiyan caused widespread flooding.
• Typhoon Haiyan affected about 14 million people and left many homeless.
• About 6 million people lost their source of income after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Flooding from Typhoon Haiyan triggered landslides and blocked roads, cutting some remote communities off from aid.
• Power supplies in some areas were cut off for about a month after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Disruption to ferry services and airline flights slowed the delivery of aid after Typhoon Haiyan.
• International governments and aid agencies quickly provided food, clean water and temporary shelter after Typhoon Haiyan.
• A United States aircraft carrier and helicopters helped search and rescue operations and delivered aid after Typhoon Haiyan.
• More than 1,200 evacuation centres were set up for people made homeless by Typhoon Haiyan.
• The United Kingdom sent shelter kits to provide emergency accommodation for families after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Field hospitals from France, Belgium and Israel were set up to treat people injured by Typhoon Haiyan.
• The Philippine Red Cross distributed basic food supplies including rice, canned food, sugar, salt and cooking oil after Typhoon Haiyan.
• The United Nations and other countries donated money, supplies and medical support for long-term recovery after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Roads, bridges and airport facilities were rebuilt after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Cash-for-work programmes paid people to clear debris and rebuild communities after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Rice farming and fishing were re-established soon after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Aid agencies such as Oxfam helped replace fishing boats after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Thousands of homes were rebuilt away from areas at risk of flooding after Typhoon Haiyan.
• More cyclone shelters were built to protect people evacuated from coastal areas after Typhoon Haiyan.
• Some countries are more vulnerable to tropical storms than others because physical, economic and social factors affect how well they can prepare for and recover from storms.
• Steep slopes increase tropical-storm risk because intense rainfall can trigger landslides.
• Low-lying coastlines are especially vulnerable to tropical storms because storm surges, flooding and high winds can affect large areas.
• Places in common tropical-storm tracks face greater risk because they are hit more frequently.
• Developing countries are often more vulnerable to tropical storms because limited financial resources restrict monitoring, preparation, protection and recovery.
• The cost of repairing tropical-storm damage can be unaffordable for some governments, businesses and households, especially where insurance cover is limited.
• Developed countries can also face very high repair costs because they have more extensive and complex infrastructure.
• Poorer-quality housing is more likely to be damaged or destroyed in a tropical storm.
• Rescue and relief are harder where transport and communication infrastructure is weak or badly damaged.
• Poorer countries often struggle more than richer countries to treat injuries and provide basic support after a tropical storm.
• High-income countries use weather charts, radar, satellites and computer models to monitor the development and movement of tropical storms.
• Monitoring tropical storms allows authorities to issue warnings several days before landfall.
• Advanced forecasting systems can often predict a tropical storm's likely path and arrival around five days in advance.
• Early warnings give people time to protect property, gather supplies and evacuate if necessary.
• Many low-income countries monitor tropical storms less effectively because forecasting equipment is expensive and communication networks may be limited.
• Tropical-storm wind strength is monitored using the five-category Saffir-Simpson scale.
• Tropical-storm forecasting is not completely accurate because both the path and intensity of a storm can change quickly.
• Governments can reduce risk by planning evacuation routes that move people out of danger quickly and safely.
• Storing food and water helps households cope when they cannot leave home for several days after a tropical storm.
• Public education about tropical storms helps people prepare properly and reduces injuries.
• Boarding up windows and doors helps reduce damage and injuries caused by flying debris.
• Emergency services can reduce losses by training regularly and rehearsing disaster responses before storms occur.
• Early warning systems linked to community shelters can reduce deaths from tropical storms.
• Buildings on stilts are less likely to be flooded during a tropical storm.
• Reinforced concrete buildings are more resistant to tropical-storm damage than weaker structures.
• Roofs fixed firmly to buildings are less likely to fail in high winds than loose tiles or poorly secured roofing.
• Metal shutters or wooden boards over windows help protect buildings from wind-blown debris.
• Coastal defences such as seawalls and levees can reduce damage from storm surges.
• Protection measures reduce deaths and damage by making buildings less likely to collapse.
• Although protection measures can be expensive to install, they can reduce long-term rebuilding costs.
• The UK has a mild seasonal climate with cool, wet winters and warm, wet summers.
• The UK's weather is influenced by continentality, the North Atlantic Drift and different air masses.
• Continentality means coastal areas are cooler in summer and warmer in winter because the sea heats and cools more slowly than land.
• The North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean current that helps keep the west coast of the UK warmer than places at similar latitude.
• Air masses are large bodies of air with similar temperature and moisture characteristics.
• The five main air masses affecting the UK are Polar Maritime, Arctic Maritime, Polar Continental, Tropical Continental and Tropical Maritime.
• Polar Maritime air usually brings cold, wet weather to the UK.
• Arctic Maritime air usually brings very cold, wet weather to the UK.
• Polar Continental air usually brings cold, dry weather to the UK.
• Tropical Continental air usually brings warm, dry weather to the UK.
• Tropical Maritime air usually brings warm, wet weather to the UK.
• Depressions are low-pressure weather systems that usually bring wet, windy and unstable weather to the UK.
• UK depressions commonly form over the Atlantic Ocean when warm air meets cold air and then move eastwards across the country.
• The heaviest rain and strongest winds from depressions are often in autumn because relatively warm seas meet colder polar air.
• Anticyclones are high-pressure weather systems that usually bring stable, dry weather to the UK.
• Winter anticyclones can bring prolonged cold and foggy conditions to the UK.
• Summer anticyclones can bring prolonged hot, dry and clear conditions to the UK.
• The UK experiences a range of weather hazards including heavy rain, strong winds, heatwaves, thunderstorms, hailstorms, drought, snow and ice.
• Heavy rain can cause flooding that damages homes and possessions, disrupts transport and leads to recovery costs of millions of pounds.
• Strong winds can damage buildings, uproot trees, create dangerous debris and cause deaths and injuries.
• Winds are usually strongest in coastal and upland areas, especially in the west of the UK.
• Heatwaves can cause heat exhaustion, breathing difficulties and deaths.
• Heatwaves can cause transport disruption because roads can melt and railway lines can buckle.
• Heatwaves can trap pollution in the air when there is little wind to disperse it.
• Thunderstorms bring heavy rain, lightning and strong winds and are most common in summer in the south and east of the UK.
• Lightning can kill people and can cause fires and damage to property and the natural environment.
• Hailstorms often occur with thunderstorms and can make driving dangerous, damage property, destroy crops and sometimes kill.
• Drought happens when water supplies run low and can damage crops, kill animals and wildlife and lead to water restrictions such as hosepipe bans.
• Snow and ice can cause slips, falls, cold-related deaths and widespread disruption to schools, businesses and transport.
• Snow drifts and severe cold can kill farm animals and damage crops and wildlife.
• Extreme weather is weather that is unusual, severe or unseasonal enough to threaten life or damage property.
• Evidence suggests that UK weather is becoming more extreme.
• Global warming can increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather by increasing evaporation and rainfall.
• Since the 1980s, the UK has experienced more extreme winter rainfall.
• UK temperatures have risen by about 1°C since 1980.
• Recent UK extreme weather includes heavier autumn rainstorms, gales, floods, heatwaves, droughts, thick fog and heavy snowfall.
• Unusually cold winters in 2010-11 and 2014-15 brought temperatures down to about -10°C, damaging crops, killing livestock and disrupting transport.
• In 2014, freezing conditions led to more than 17,000 train cancellations and delayed flights in the UK.
• The Beast from the East in 2018 was a recent extreme weather event in the UK caused by sudden stratospheric warming over the North Pole.
• Sudden stratospheric warming weakened the jet stream and allowed very cold air from western Russia to spread across Europe and the UK.
• During the Beast from the East, snow, freezing temperatures and strong winds created blizzard conditions in parts of the UK.
• The Beast from the East closed schools for up to three days and left hundreds of people trapped in cars on roads and motorways.
• The Beast from the East contributed to deaths in the UK and led the NHS to cancel non-urgent operations.
• The Beast from the East created gas shortages, power cuts and major disruption to travel and business activity.
• The Beast from the East was estimated to cost the UK economy at least £1 billion per day.
• During the Beast from the East, temperatures fell to about -10°C, wind chill fell to about -22°C, wind speeds exceeded 70 mph and 15 to 20 cm of snow fell in many places.
• Snow drifts during the Beast from the East reached up to 7 metres in some rural areas.
• The Beast from the East damaged crops and killed livestock during the freezing conditions.
• Met Office red weather warnings reduced risk during the Beast from the East by discouraging unnecessary travel.
• Risk was also reduced during the Beast from the East by opening community centres, clearing roads, deploying the armed forces and supporting vulnerable people with food, heating and medicines.
• The Beast from the East was a period of extreme winter weather that affected the UK from 24 February to 4 March 2018.
• The Beast from the East developed when sudden stratospheric warming over the Arctic weakened and distorted the polar jet stream.
• The weakened jet stream allowed very cold air to move into the UK from the east.
• As the cold air crossed the North Sea, it picked up moisture that later fell as snow over the UK.
• Storm Emma intensified the Beast from the East on 1 March 2018 when it collided with the cold air over the UK and brought further heavy snowfall.
• The Beast from the East brought very low temperatures, with some rural areas falling to about -12°C.
• The Beast from the East produced widespread snowfall, including very heavy falls on the east coast of the UK and in the Scottish Borders.
• Up to 50 cm of snow fell in parts of Dartmoor, Exmoor and upland south-east Wales, and exposed areas also experienced gales.
• Flood warnings were issued for some UK coastlines during the Beast from the East.
• At least four deaths were reported during the Beast from the East.
• The Beast from the East caused major transport disruption, including the cancellation of hundreds of short-haul British Airways flights from Heathrow and many services from London City Airport.
• Thousands of schools closed during the Beast from the East because snow and ice made travel unsafe.
• Hundreds of people were trapped in vehicles for hours during the Beast from the East, and many lorries crashed on snow-covered roads.
• The AA estimated that there were 8,260 collisions on British roads in three days during the Beast from the East, with insurance losses of more than £10 million.
• The Beast from the East raised concerns that the UK could face gas shortages.
• The Met Office issued red weather warnings for several areas during the Beast from the East to reduce risk and discourage travel.
• Emergency services and the armed forces supported the response to the Beast from the East by helping stranded people and transporting health workers through blocked roads.
• Public Health England advised people to prepare for the Beast from the East by ensuring that they had enough food and medicine.
• An air mass is a large body of air with similar temperature and moisture characteristics.
• Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air that helps to distribute thermal energy around the Earth.
• The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of winds caused by the Earth's rotation, which curves winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• The Ferrel cell is the middle atmospheric circulation cell between 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude and contributes to the UK's changeable weather.
• Global wind belts are broad zones where winds blow consistently in particular directions because of pressure differences and the Coriolis effect.
• The Hadley cell is the largest atmospheric circulation cell, extending from the equator to about 30 degrees latitude, where warm air rises and cools to form clouds and rain.
• High pressure is a weather system in which air sinks and usually produces dry, settled conditions.
• Insolation is the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface.
• The Intertropical Convergence Zone is a low-pressure zone near the equator where trade winds meet and often generate thunderstorms.
• Low pressure is a weather system in which air rises and often brings cloud, wind and rain.
• The polar cell is the smallest and coldest atmospheric circulation cell and extends from about 60 degrees latitude to the poles.
• Trade winds blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the equator and are deflected by the Coriolis effect.
• A cyclone is the regional name for a tropical storm in the Indian Ocean and the southern Pacific.
• The eye of a tropical storm is the calm, clear centre of the storm, where pressure is lowest and winds are light.
• The eyewall is the ring around the eye of a tropical storm where the strongest winds and heaviest rain occur.
• A hurricane is the regional name for a tropical storm in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
• Low vertical wind shear means that wind speed and wind direction change very little with height, which allows tropical storms to strengthen.
• The Saffir-Simpson Scale classifies tropical storms by wind speed from Category 1, the weakest, to Category 5, the strongest.
• A typhoon is the regional name for a tropical storm in the western Pacific and the South China Sea.
• A tropical storm is a powerful rotating low-pressure system with heavy rain and strong winds that forms over warm ocean water.
• The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere, and tropical storm clouds do not usually rise above it.
• Tropical storms need ocean temperatures of at least 27 degrees Celsius to form and intensify.
• Primary effects are the immediate impacts of a tropical storm, such as flooding, collapsed buildings and injuries.
• Secondary effects are impacts that happen after a tropical storm, such as homelessness, disease outbreaks and food shortages.
• Economic impacts of tropical storms include infrastructure damage, business disruption and loss of income.
• Environmental impacts of tropical storms include ecosystem damage, pollution and the destruction of crops and wildlife habitats.
• Homelessness is a common secondary effect of tropical storms when homes are destroyed or badly damaged.
• A storm surge is a rise in sea level caused by a tropical storm that can lead to coastal flooding.
• Waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid can spread after tropical storms when clean water supplies become contaminated.
• The cone of uncertainty, also called the Tropical Cyclone Track Forecast Cone, is a forecast graphic that shows the most likely path of a tropical cyclone's centre over five days.
• Evacuation is the movement of people from areas at risk from storms to safer places.
• Forecasting is the use of weather data and computer models to predict the path and strength of tropical storms.
• A hurricane watch is an official warning that a storm is expected to affect a region and gives people time to prepare.
• A low-income country usually has fewer resources and less infrastructure, which makes tropical storm management more difficult.
• Monitoring is the tracking of tropical storm development using satellites, radar and computer models.
• Planning for tropical storms includes strategies such as education, drills and evacuation routes to reduce damage.
• Protection against tropical storms includes measures such as sea walls, reinforced buildings and storm shelters to reduce impacts.
• An anticyclone is a high-pressure weather system that brings dry, stable weather that is often hot in summer and cold in winter.
• Continentality is the influence of land on climate, which makes inland places hotter in summer and colder in winter than coastal places.
• A depression is a low-pressure system that commonly brings cloudy, wet and windy weather to the UK.
• A drought is a prolonged period of below-average rainfall that causes water shortages.
• Extreme weather is weather that is unusually severe and creates risks to life or property.
• Flooding happens when water covers land that is usually dry, often because of heavy rainfall or rivers overflowing.
• A hailstorm is a storm that produces balls or lumps of ice that can damage property and crops.
• A heatwave is an extended period of hot weather that can create health risks and disrupt infrastructure.
• The North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean current that makes the UK's climate milder than the climate of many places at similar latitudes.
• Polar continental air is a cold, dry air mass that can affect the UK in winter.
• Earth's climate has varied over time, producing alternating colder and warmer periods.
• The Quaternary period covers the last 2.6 million years and includes around 60 cold periods and warmer interglacial periods.
• The last ice age ended about 12,000 years ago.
• Evidence for past climate change comes from ice cores, preserved pollen, historical records and tree rings.
• Ice cores provide evidence for past climate change because they trap ash, air bubbles and microbes from earlier periods.
• Recent climate change is shown by shrinking glaciers, reduced Arctic sea ice, rising sea levels and changes in seasonal behaviour in plants and animals.
• Sea levels are rising partly because melting ice adds water to the oceans and partly because warmer water expands.
• Changes in flowering, bird migration, bird nesting and hibernation patterns provide evidence of recent climate change.
• The greenhouse effect is a natural process that makes life on Earth possible.
• Greenhouse gases allow short-wave solar radiation to pass through the atmosphere to Earth's surface.
• Greenhouse gases absorb some outgoing long-wave radiation and reduce the amount of heat that escapes into space.
• The greenhouse effect helps maintain Earth's average temperature, which would be about -18°C without it.
• Natural sources of greenhouse gases include water vapour from evaporation and plants, carbon dioxide from volcanic eruptions, wildfires and respiration, methane from oceans, soils and termites, and nitrous oxide from soils and oceans.
• Milankovitch cycles are long-term changes in Earth's orbit and position that alter how much solar radiation Earth receives.
• Changes in the shape of Earth's orbit occur roughly every 100,000 years, with more circular orbits linked to cooler periods and more elliptical orbits linked to warmer periods.
• Changes in Earth's axial tilt occur roughly every 40,000 years, and a greater tilt produces hotter summers and colder winters.
• Earth's axis wobbles roughly every 24,000 years, and this can affect seasonal temperatures.
• Large volcanic eruptions can lower temperatures because ash in the atmosphere blocks incoming solar radiation.
• Increased sunspot activity is associated with higher average temperatures.
• Dust from asteroids and meteors entering the atmosphere can reduce temperatures by increasing the amount of dust in the air.
• Human activities enhance the greenhouse effect by increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• Human sources of carbon dioxide include burning fossil fuels, burning wood and deforestation.
• Deforestation increases atmospheric carbon dioxide because fewer trees are available to remove carbon dioxide by photosynthesis.
• Human sources of methane include decaying organic matter, landfill waste, cattle and rice cultivation.
• Human sources of nitrous oxide include artificial fertilisers and the burning of fossil fuels.
• Chlorofluorocarbons have been released by aerosols, refrigeration units and air conditioning systems.
• Fossil fuels account for almost half of global greenhouse gas emissions.
• Fossil fuels are widely used in transport, construction, heating, manufacturing and energy production.
• Agriculture contributes to climate change through deforestation, fossil fuel use in fertiliser and pesticide production, methane emissions from cattle and rice cultivation, and nitrous oxide emissions from artificial fertilisers.
• Cement manufacture releases carbon dioxide because cement is made from limestone, which contains carbon.
• Transport contributes to climate change because most cars, lorries and planes burn fuels derived from oil and release carbon dioxide.
• Ozone layer depletion and global warming are separate environmental processes.
• Climate change can increase the spread of disease through higher temperatures, reduced precipitation and wider transmission of water-borne illnesses.
• Heatwaves can become more frequent with climate change and can increase heat stroke, dehydration, sunburn, air pollution and respiratory illness.
• Higher temperatures can worsen health outcomes for people with cardiopulmonary diseases.
• Climate change can cause food shortages that lead to malnutrition and famine.
• Milder winters may reduce the number of winter-related deaths.
• Climate change can reduce employment opportunities by disrupting tourism and agriculture.
• Rising sea levels and more frequent severe storms can flood homes and displace large numbers of people.
• Farmers may need to change crops where climate conditions become unsuitable for existing agriculture.
• Coastal flooding can cause salt intrusion, which damages soils and affects farming.
• Reduced water availability can make irrigation limited or impossible.
• Some tourism jobs may be lost because ski resorts can close without reliable snow and coastal resorts can be affected by flooding.
• Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns can force farmers to change livestock, alter crops or leave farming altogether.
• Changing ocean temperatures can reduce fishing in some areas.
• Settlements in low-lying areas may need expensive flood defences or may have to be abandoned because of sea level rise.
• Sea level rises because warmer ocean water expands and because melting ice adds more water to the oceans.
• Average global sea level has risen by about 23 cm since 1880.
• Sea level is forecast to rise by a further 30 cm by 2050.
• Low-lying coasts and islands face greater flood risk as sea level rises.
• The Maldives may become uninhabitable by 2050 if sea level rise continues.
• Climate change can increase beach erosion and wider coastal erosion.
• Coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangrove swamps are threatened by sea level rise and other climate impacts.
• Saltwater ingress can contaminate freshwater supplies and damage coastal agriculture.
• Climate change is likely to increase the frequency and severity of storms.
• Climate change is increasing the frequency and duration of droughts.
• Hotter and drier conditions raise the risk of wildfires.
• Rising sea levels combined with stronger storms increase flood risk.
• Biomes may shift northwards in the Northern Hemisphere and southwards in the Southern Hemisphere as climate zones move.
• Polar and tundra biomes are especially vulnerable because they cannot shift much further polewards.
• Rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification can cause coral bleaching.
• Changing temperatures can alter migration and behaviour patterns in animals.
• Some fish species are moving northwards or southwards to find cooler water.
• Warmer winters can reduce hibernation in some animal species.
• Changing temperatures can allow pests and disease vectors such as malaria-carrying mosquitoes to spread into higher latitudes.
• Managing climate change involves mitigation, which reduces the causes of climate change, and adaptation, which adjusts to its effects to reduce damage.
• Climate change requires an international response because greenhouse gas emissions and their impacts affect the whole planet.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was established in 1988 to assess the risks of human-induced climate change.
• The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels.
• The 1997 Kyoto Protocol committed many industrialised countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels.
• Developing countries such as China and India were exempt from the Kyoto Protocol targets.
• The United States did not sign the Kyoto Protocol, and Canada withdrew from it in 2011.
• The 2015 Paris Agreement aimed to limit global warming to well below 2°C and preferably 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
• The Paris Agreement also aimed for major reductions in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 and was signed by 196 countries.
• The Conference of the Parties is an annual United Nations meeting at which countries discuss and agree actions on climate change.
• Alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, tidal and geothermal power help mitigate climate change because they produce far fewer greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels.
• Renewable energy technologies still cause some emissions during construction, but these emissions are lower than those produced by fossil fuel energy systems.
• Afforestation helps mitigate climate change because trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and store the carbon.
• Increased transpiration from forests can increase cloud formation, which can reduce incoming solar radiation.
• Carbon capture and storage reduces emissions by capturing carbon dioxide before it is released, compressing it and storing it underground.
• Carbon capture and storage is currently limited because it is expensive and its long-term reliability is uncertain.
• Agricultural systems may need to adapt to climate change because changing weather patterns can alter growing conditions and the spread of pests and diseases.
• Farmers can adapt to climate change by changing the crops they grow or the livestock they rear to suit new climatic conditions.
• Developing drought-resistant crops can help agriculture cope with hotter and drier conditions.
• Floating gardens allow crops to be grown on platforms that rise with floodwater levels.
• Water supplies can be managed by reducing demand through water-efficient appliances and devices.
• Water supplies can also be increased through desalination, water storage facilities and more efficient irrigation systems.
• Improved irrigation systems help adaptation by reducing water wastage.
• The risks from rising sea levels can be reduced by building sea walls and flood barriers.
• Restoring mangrove forests helps protect coasts from flooding and wave energy.
• Houses built on stilts can reduce flood damage by allowing water to flow underneath them.
• Some countries threatened by sea level rise have built artificial islands raised above sea level.
• Atmospheric dust consists of tiny particles from meteors or volcanic eruptions that can reflect sunlight and lower temperatures.
• Deforestation is the removal of trees, which reduces the amount of carbon dioxide taken out of the atmosphere.
• The enhanced greenhouse effect happens when human activity increases greenhouse gas concentrations and causes more heat to be trapped.
• Fossil fuels are natural fuels such as coal, oil and gas that release greenhouse gases when they are burned for energy.
• The greenhouse effect is the natural process by which greenhouse gases trap heat in Earth's atmosphere.
• Greenhouse gases are gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that trap heat in the atmosphere.
• Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas released by cattle, rice farming and decaying waste.
• Milankovitch cycles are natural changes in Earth's orbit and tilt that affect climate over long periods of time.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas released by fertilisers and by burning fossil fuels.
• Sunspot activity is linked to changes in solar radiation that can influence global temperatures.
• Volcanic eruptions can cool the planet because ash in the atmosphere blocks some incoming sunlight.
• Agriculture disruption happens when drought or flooding causes crop failure and forces farmers to change what they grow.
• Beach erosion is the faster wearing away of coastal land caused by rising sea levels and stronger storms.
• Coral bleaching happens when higher sea temperatures damage coral reefs and can cause coral to die.
• Ecosystem change happens when rising temperatures cause plant and animal habitats to shift, shrink or disappear.
• Climate change creates health risks by increasing diseases such as malaria and worsening respiratory problems.
• Climate change can cause job losses, especially in sectors such as tourism and farming that depend on stable environmental conditions.
• Climate change can cause migration when people are forced to move because of flooding, heatwaves or food shortages.
• Climate change can damage nutrition when droughts and floods create food shortages that lead to malnutrition or famine.
• Property damage happens when flooding and other extreme weather destroy or damage homes and businesses.
• Sea level rise happens because warming oceans expand and melting ice adds more water to the sea, increasing the risk of coastal flooding.
• Wildfires become more frequent and severe when climate change creates hotter and drier conditions.
• Afforestation means planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide and help reduce global warming.
• Alternative energy uses cleaner sources such as wind, solar and hydroelectric power instead of fossil fuels.
• Carbon capture and storage (CCS) reduces emissions by capturing carbon dioxide before it enters the atmosphere and storing it underground.
• International agreements are global decisions, such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, that aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• The Paris Agreement is a 2015 international agreement that aims to limit global warming to below 2C.
• Renewable energy comes from sources such as sunlight, wind and water that do not run out.
• Agricultural changes help adaptation by using drought-resistant crops, improved irrigation and new farming methods to cope with climate change.
• Desalination is the process of turning salt water into fresh water to deal with water shortages.
• Flood defences include sea walls, barriers and mangrove planting that reduce the risk from rising sea levels.
• Floating gardens are platforms used to grow crops in places where flooding is common.
• Raised homes are houses built on stilts so that floodwater can pass underneath and cause less damage.
• Water conservation reduces pressure on water supplies by saving water and managing water use more efficiently.

• Classify a described event as tectonic, geomorphological, atmospheric or biological by using its cause.
• Interpret maps to relate the global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes to plate margins and hotspots.
• Infer the type of plate margin from a diagram or description of plate movement, crust type and volcanic activity.
• Sequence the physical processes at constructive, destructive and conservative margins that lead to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• Distinguish between the primary and secondary effects of a tectonic hazard in a case-study account.
• Compare how the effects and responses to tectonic hazards vary between places of contrasting wealth using named examples.
• Evaluate why people continue to live in tectonically active areas by weighing economic, social and environmental reasons.
• Judge the likely effectiveness and limits of monitoring, prediction, protection and planning for a tectonic hazard.
• Interpret pressure belts and surface winds on a global circulation diagram to explain broad patterns of weather and climate.
• Relate the global distribution of tropical storms to ocean temperature, latitude and the Coriolis effect.
• Sequence the formation and development of a tropical storm from warm ocean water to a mature low-pressure system.
• Label or interpret the eye, eyewall, spiral rain bands and associated weather on a tropical storm diagram.
• Distinguish between the primary and secondary effects of a tropical storm in a named case study.
• Compare immediate and long-term responses to a tropical storm and judge which most reduced risk or supported recovery.
• Assess how monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the impacts of tropical storms in a named setting.
• Analyse the causes, impacts and management of a recent UK extreme weather event using social, economic and environmental evidence.
• Interpret maps, graphs or records to judge whether UK weather is becoming more extreme.
• Interpret evidence from the Quaternary period to the present day to show how climate has changed over time.
• Evaluate the relative importance of natural and human causes of climate change, then recommend appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies for a named place.