Curriculum Portal

neurologyYou need to know

• Urbanisation is the process by which an increasing proportion of a country's population lives in towns and cities.
• Urban change is a global phenomenon, but the level and rate of urbanisation vary between regions and between countries at different stages of development.
• High-income countries usually have the highest overall levels of urbanisation, while the lowest levels are found in much of Africa and South-East Asia.
• More than half of the world's population now lives in urban areas rather than rural areas.
• Between 1950 and 2015 the world population roughly doubled, but the urban population more than tripled.
• The relocation of industry from many developed countries to newly emerging economies and low-income countries helped accelerate urban growth outside high-income countries.
• Industrial growth in newly emerging economies and low-income countries has pulled migrants from rural areas into urban areas in search of jobs and a better quality of life.
• Countries usually become more urbanised as they develop economically.
• The urbanisation pathway shows that countries typically move from mainly rural societies to mass urbanisation as their economies develop.
• Urban growth often slows, levels off or declines in later stages of development as counter-urbanisation becomes more significant.
• Urban growth rates vary both between countries and within individual countries.
• High-income countries usually have slow or declining rates of urban growth because they are already highly urbanised.
• In many high-income countries, some people move away from overcrowded cities to rural areas, increasing counter-urbanisation.
• Good transport and communication networks in high-income countries allow people to live in rural settlements and commute to cities or work remotely.
• Newly emerging economies usually experience rapid urban growth, especially in major trade hub cities.
• Major trade cities in newly emerging economies often grow faster than other cities because they attract investment from governments and transnational corporations.
• Low-income countries usually experience the fastest rates of urbanisation.
• Much urban growth in low-income countries is concentrated in large cities where low-cost manufacturing and other economic development are located.
• Asia is expected to account for about 60% of global urban growth by 2030.
• The main factors affecting the rate of urbanisation are economic development, rural-urban migration and natural increase.
• Faster growth in secondary and tertiary employment usually leads to faster urbanisation.
• Economic growth increases the demand for labour in urban areas.
• Urban labour demand can be met by natural increase within cities or by rural-urban migration.
• Natural increase is the difference between births and deaths and does not include migration.
• Natural increase accounts for about 60% of urban population growth worldwide.
• Natural increase in urban areas is driven by falling death rates and relatively high birth rates.
• Push factors are negative conditions in a person's place of origin that encourage migration.
• Pull factors are the expected advantages of the destination that attract migrants.
• Push and pull factors differ between individuals and can be social, economic, political or environmental.
• Rural-urban migration usually results from a combination of push and pull factors.
• High unemployment is a common push factor, while higher wages, better services and an improved lifestyle are common pull factors.
• A megacity is an urban area with more than 10 million inhabitants.
• The number of cities with at least one million people rose from 2 in 1900 to 512 by 2018.
• The number of megacities rose from 4 in 1970 to 15 in 2000 and 33 in 2018.
• The United Nations predicted that the number of megacities would rise to 41.
• Tokyo was the world's largest megacity in 2018 with about 37.3 million people.
• Urban areas increasingly spread into surrounding rural land, creating conurbations.
• In 2007, the global urban population became larger than the rural population.
• By 2050, more than two thirds of the world's population is expected to live in urban areas.
• The fastest growth of megacities is taking place in Asia.
• Economic development supports megacity growth by increasing demand for jobs, goods and services.
• Megacities act as major service centres in the formal economy, and many megacities in newly emerging economies are also important manufacturing centres.
• Population growth in megacities is sustained both by migration and by internal growth as residents have children.
• The multiplier effect means that successful cities attract more people and investment, which then drives further growth.
• Megacities often have wide spheres of influence and attract both people and businesses.
• By 2030, more than 60% of the world's population is expected to live in urban areas.
• Urbanisation usually happens as countries develop and people move from rural areas to towns and cities.
• Most urbanisation in high-income countries took place before 1950 during the industrial growth of Europe and North America.
• High-income countries were already much more urbanised in 1950, with 53% of their population living in urban areas compared with 20% in NEEs and 17% in LICs.
• Since the 1950s, urbanisation in LICs has accelerated rapidly, especially in South America, Asia and Africa.
• In 1950, 30% of the world's population lived in urban areas, rising to 47% in 2000 and 56% in 2021.
• In NEEs, the urban share of the population rose from 20% in 1950 to 41% in 2000 and 54% in 2021.
• In LICs, the urban share of the population rose from 17% in 1950 to 27% in 2000 and 34% in 2021.
• One cause of urbanisation in LICs is rural-urban migration driven by population growth and a lack of resources in rural areas.
• Another cause of urbanisation in LICs is the pull of urban opportunities, even though many migrants end up in informal work and poor housing.
• Natural increase causes urban growth in LICs and NEEs because improving healthcare lowers infant mortality and death rates while birth rates often remain high.
• Urban growth in LICs and NEEs can stimulate economic development by expanding industrial areas.
• Industrial development in cities creates more jobs and can raise wages.
• Selling manufactured goods overseas can increase company profits, tax revenues and national economic growth.
• Urban growth can improve access to services such as education, healthcare and the internet.
• Urban growth can improve access to resources such as clean water, sanitation and electricity.
• Urban growth can improve living conditions through measures such as street lighting and policing.
• A major challenge of urban growth in LICs and NEEs is the spread of informal settlements, especially in megacities.
• Informal settlements are unplanned and unregulated areas of housing with limited sanitation, fresh water and reliable energy supplies.
• In developing countries, about a quarter of urban residents, around 1.6 billion people, live in squatter settlements.
• The United Nations estimates that by 2030, one in four people worldwide may live in some form of informal settlement.
• Slums are very large and overcrowded informal settlements within megacities.
• Unregulated housing in informal settlements creates serious risks from fire, flooding and landslides.
• Rapid urban growth also creates problems of waste disposal, air pollution, water pollution and traffic congestion.
• Air pollution in rapidly growing cities is increased by fossil fuel use, factories and vehicle exhausts.
• Waterways in rapidly growing cities can be polluted by sewage and toxic chemicals.
• Other urban challenges include weak public transport, shortages of doctors and teachers, unemployment, crime, informal work and child exploitation.
• Brazil is a major agricultural and industrial country and has the strongest economy in Latin America.
• Rio de Janeiro was Brazil's capital in 1950 and had a population of about 3 million at that time.
• Rio de Janeiro is now Brazil's second largest city after Sao Paulo, with a population of more than 12.5 million.
• Rio de Janeiro is an important trading port with oil refining and shipbuilding industries.
• Rio de Janeiro exports products such as iron, steel and crude petroleum.
• Rio de Janeiro is also a major tourist destination and hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics.
• Inward migration to Rio de Janeiro has increased pressure on services and contributed to a housing shortage.
• Many rural migrants in Rio begin by living in favelas, and Rocinha is the city's largest and most developed informal settlement.
• More than 20% of Rio's population lives in about 1,000 favelas in and around the city.
• Many favelas are located on steep or poor-quality land that is unsuitable for formal urban development.
• Favela residents often have no legal right to the land they occupy.
• Many older favelas in Rio are well established, and 95% of homes are built from solid materials such as brick.
• About 75% of favela homes in Rio have tiled floors.
• Some favela homes have electricity, running water, televisions, computers and internet access.
• Newer favelas are often overcrowded and include shelters made from timber and corrugated iron on steep hillsides.
• Many favela households illegally connect to the electricity grid, which makes street power supplies unsafe.
• Many households in Rio lack safe running water because major water pipes are damaged and leaking.
• Very few homes in Rio's favelas have a direct water supply.
• The Favela Bairro Project ran from 1994 to 2008.
• The Favela Bairro Project aimed to provide essential services and recognise favelas as formal neighbourhoods of the city.
• The Favela Bairro Project taught families to build stable foundations with strong materials.
• As part of The Favela Barrio Project residents in the most dangerous hillside homes were relocated by the local government.
• The Favela Barrio Project provided brick homes with electricity, clean water and sanitation, which reduced water-borne disease such as cholera.
• Some residents of the Favela Barrio Project were able to buy their homes and gain legal rights to the land.
• The Favela Bairro Project improved living conditions for many residents, but its overall success was mixed.
• Further improvement was limited by steep hillsides, heavy rain, floods, landslides and restricted funding.
• Community cultural activities such as samba, capoeira and reggae were used to reduce youth involvement in gangs and organised crime.
• Rio de Janeiro is a major city in Brazil, South America, and is Brazil's second most populous city.
• Rio de Janeiro has grown rapidly because many migrants have moved from rural areas to the city in search of better opportunities.
• Rio de Janeiro has regional, national and international importance because it is Brazil's cultural capital, a major port and an international transport hub.
• Rio de Janeiro is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, hosted the 2016 Olympic Games and staged matches during the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
• Rio de Janeiro is one of Brazil's most important industrial centres, with manufacturing industries such as chemicals and furniture alongside banking, finance and other service industries.
• Rio de Janeiro is one of the most visited places in the Southern Hemisphere and is internationally recognised for the Statue of Christ the Redeemer.
• Around 55% of Rio de Janeiro's population does not have access to a local health clinic, which contributes to poor health outcomes.
• Only about half of children in Rio de Janeiro continue education beyond the age of 14 because of school shortages, a lack of teachers, poverty and the attraction of crime and drugs.
• Around 12% of Rio de Janeiro's population does not have access to running water, and electricity shortages cause frequent blackouts.
• Illegal connections to the electricity supply are common in Rio de Janeiro and are dangerous for residents.
• Mobile health workers in Favela Santa Marta visited about 8,000 homes with health kits, detected and treated 20 diseases, and helped reduce infant mortality while increasing life expectancy.
• Education initiatives in Rio de Janeiro include volunteer support in schools, grants to families so children can stay in school, free sports lessons and a private free university in Rocinha.
• Rio de Janeiro has increased electricity supply by building 60 km of new power lines and the Simplicio hydroelectric power complex, which raised supply by about 30%.
• High crime rates in Rio de Janeiro include murder, kidnapping and drug gang control in many favelas, which reduces trust in the police.
• Wealth in Rio de Janeiro is distributed very unevenly, and the 2015 recession increased unemployment, especially in the favelas.
• Favela unemployment in Rio de Janeiro is about 20%, and many residents work in insecure low-paid informal jobs such as street vending and domestic work.
• Informal sector workers in Rio de Janeiro often earn about GBP 60 per month, have no contracts or job security, and do not contribute tax revenues that could help fund favela improvements.
• Pacifying Police Units have reclaimed about 30 favelas from drug gangs, which has reduced crime and increased property values and tourism.
• The Schools for Tomorrow programme in Rio de Janeiro aims to improve young people's practical skills so they can find work.
• Adult education courses and free childcare in Rio de Janeiro help former students and teenage mothers return to education.
• Air pollution in Rio de Janeiro causes about 5,000 deaths each year because traffic exhausts and factory emissions mix with mist from the Atlantic.
• Rio de Janeiro's steep mountains restrict road building to coastal lowlands, which contributes to severe traffic congestion and the need for tunnels.
• The number of cars in Rio de Janeiro has risen by more than 40% in the last decade, and high crime rates encourage many people to travel by car.
• Guanabara Bay is heavily polluted, threatening wildlife, reducing commercial fishing by about 90% in 20 years and putting tourism at beaches such as Ipanema and Copacabana at risk.
• Water pollution in Guanabara Bay is caused by heavily polluted rivers, runoff from open sewers, more than 200 tonnes of raw sewage each day and more than 50 tonnes of industrial waste each day.
• Waste disposal is especially difficult in Rio de Janeiro's favelas because steep slopes and poor road access prevent rubbish lorries from collecting waste effectively.
• Dumped waste in Rio de Janeiro's favelas pollutes water supplies, increases disease risk and encourages rats.
• Rio de Janeiro has tried to cut congestion and air pollution by expanding the metro under Guanabara Bay, introducing toll roads and making coastal roads one way during rush hour.
• Rio de Janeiro has reduced water pollution by building 12 sewage treatment works since 2004, installing 5 km of sewage pipes and fining ships that illegally discharge fuel into Guanabara Bay.
• A biogas power plant near the University of Rio uses methane from rotting rubbish, processes about 30 tonnes of waste each day and generates enough electricity for about 1,000 homes.
• Rio de Janeiro has up to 1,000 favelas, with about 60% in the suburbs, about 25% on the urban fringe and some as far as 40 km from the city centre.
• Rio de Janeiro's authorities have cleared many favelas near the city centre to make the city more attractive to businesses and tourists.
• Rocinha is Rio de Janeiro's largest favela, with a recorded population of about 75,000 in 2000 and a likely current population around three times higher.
• Around 90% of homes in Rocinha are built of brick and have electricity, running water and sewage systems.
• Many homes in Rocinha contain consumer goods such as televisions and fridges, and the favela has its own newspaper and radio station.
• Rocinha has a range of retail and community services, including shops, bars, a travel agent, a McDonald's, schools, health facilities and a private university.
• Many favela homes in Rio de Janeiro are poorly built with basic materials and are vulnerable to landslides on steep slopes during heavy rain.
• In 2010, landslides in Rio de Janeiro killed 224 people and left about 13,000 people homeless after houses were swept away.
• Steep slopes in Rio de Janeiro's favelas also limit road access and make service provision more difficult.
• In non-improved favelas in Rio de Janeiro, about 12% of homes lack running water, more than 30% have no electricity and about 50% have no sewage connection.
• Many favela residents in Rio de Janeiro rely on illegal electricity connections, open drains and water collected from city mains at the bottom of steep slopes.
• Many favelas in Rio de Janeiro have murder rates of about 20 per 1,000 and are dominated by drug gangs, while many residents distrust the police because of violence and corruption.
• High population densities, poor waste disposal, smoke from burning rubbish and disease all contribute to poor health in Rio de Janeiro's favelas.
• Infant mortality in some of Rio de Janeiro's favelas reaches about 50 per 1,000 live births.
• Favela Bairro was a site-and-service scheme in Rio de Janeiro in which the local authority provided land and basic services so residents could build or improve their homes.
• Complexo do Alemao is a group of favelas in Rio de Janeiro's North Zone with a population of more than 60,000 people.
• The Favela Bairro Project improved some favelas by paving roads and giving streets formal names.
• The Favela Bairro Project improved sanitation in favelas by providing access to water supplies and drainage systems.
• The Favela Bairro Project reduced physical hazards by securing unstable hillsides and relocating residents where necessary.
• The Favela Bairro Project improved access to services by building new health, leisure and education facilities.
• A cable car system was installed across the hillsides of Complexo do Alemao, and residents were given one free return ticket each day.
• The Favela Bairro Project gave residents access to credit so they could buy materials to improve their homes.
• Some residents could use 100% mortgages to buy their own homes.
• A Pacifying Police Unit was established in some favelas, with police patrolling the community to help reduce crime.
• The Favela Bairro Project improved quality of life, mobility and employment prospects for many favela residents.
• The Favela Bairro Project was not a complete success because its budget of about US$1 billion was not enough to improve every favela.
• Some of the infrastructure built by the Favela Bairro Project was not maintained properly after construction.
• Many residents lacked the skills and resources needed to repair homes and infrastructure.
• Further training was needed to improve literacy and employment opportunities in the favelas.
• Rising rents in improved favelas could make the poorest residents worse off.
• Population in the UK is distributed unevenly, with the highest population densities in major cities.
• Many major UK cities developed in flat, low-lying areas near coasts or major rivers because those sites are easier to build on and connect.
• The fastest-growing urban areas in the UK are in south-east England, where several cities have expanded into conurbations alongside the country's fastest-growing regional economy.
• Mineral resources such as coal, lead, tin and iron ore helped many UK cities to grow near mining and industrial areas.
• Relief influences population density because lowland sites are easier to develop than mountainous terrain.
• Sheltered estuaries increase population density in some coastal areas because they allow ports and harbours to develop.
• London is the capital and largest city in the UK, with about 9.5 million people and a major global financial role.
• Birmingham is the second-largest city in the UK, with a population of about 1.1 million.
• Population within a city is distributed in a complex pattern shaped by the city's historical development.
• Most towns and cities grow outwards from a historic core towards an urban fringe.
• A typical city contains a central core, an inner-city zone, suburban areas and an urban fringe.
• The central core is the oldest part of a city and usually contains the central business district, multi-storey development and relatively few residents.
• Inner-city areas often contain older terraced worker housing and older industrial land uses.
• Suburban areas are mainly residential and often show segregation by wealth, ethnicity, personal choice or government housing policy.
• Urban-fringe areas contain housing estates, some industrial land uses and high accessibility, but urban growth there erodes surrounding countryside.
• Commuter settlements are places where many people live outside a city and travel into the city for work while continuing to use urban services.
• Migration is the movement of people across an official national or international boundary with the intention of making a permanent home.
• Migration has shaped the UK economically, culturally, politically and environmentally.
• Before the eighteenth century, most people in the UK lived in rural areas and worked in agriculture.
• During the Industrial Revolution, many people moved from rural areas to towns and cities to find better-paid jobs in the secondary sector.
• In the post-industrial UK, most people live in urban areas and population growth has spread around cities through urban sprawl.
• The UK has experienced repeated waves of international migration, including migration linked to famine, labour demand, European enlargement and refugee movements.
• In the 2021 census, 16.8% of usual residents in England and Wales were born outside the UK, so about one in six residents was born abroad.
• India was the largest country of origin for people born outside the UK in the 2021 census for England and Wales, with large communities also linked to Pakistan, Ireland and Poland.
• International migration can fill skills shortages, increase tax revenue, raise birth rates, supply low-wage labour and increase cultural diversity in cities.
• International migration can also generate pressure on housing, services and infrastructure and can contribute to overcrowding, congestion, job competition and language barriers.
• Migrants often cluster in particular urban neighbourhoods, and migration can also change gender balance and encourage some families or retirees to move away from dense urban areas.
• Immigration and multiculturalism can create political tension and conflict between communities, including discrimination and hate crime against ethnic minorities.
• Urban change in UK cities creates social, economic and environmental opportunities as well as social, economic and environmental challenges.
• Urban change can create social opportunities by increasing cultural diversity and expanding restaurants, leisure facilities and entertainment.
• Urban change can create economic opportunities by attracting tourists to cultural events, creating multiplier effects through new jobs, strengthening central business districts and supporting high-technology industries and science parks.
• Urban change can create environmental opportunities through integrated transport systems, urban greening and the regeneration of brownfield land into cleaner, more accessible spaces.
• Urban deprivation occurs when well-being falls below an acceptable minimum standard across areas such as income, employment, health, education, crime, housing, services and the living environment.
• In the UK, multiple deprivation is commonly measured using seven indicators: income, employment, health, education, access to housing and services, crime and the living environment.
• Cycles of deprivation can pass from one generation to the next because poor housing, weak schooling, low qualifications and low incomes reinforce each other.
• Food supply is a challenge for large cities because food is often imported, which raises costs and increases the city's carbon footprint.
• Urban development and regeneration can increase inequality between wealthier and poorer residents.
• Poor-quality housing can damage health through cold, overcrowding and mould, while unhealthy inner-city lifestyles can further reduce life expectancy.
• Many inner-city schools face overcrowding, limited resources and staffing problems, and poor educational outcomes can contribute to unemployment and low incomes.
• Cities in high-income countries have high energy demands for homes, businesses, transport, heating, lighting and modern electronics, so energy security can become a challenge.
• Transport systems in large cities face congestion, exhaust pollution and heavy pressure on road, rail and bus networks.
• Water supply can be a major challenge in large cities because demand may exceed local supply, requiring water transfers or desalination.
• Waste disposal is difficult in large cities because households and businesses produce huge volumes of rubbish and landfill is costly and increasingly restricted.
• Social segregation occurs when people live near others with similar income, ethnicity or social status, which can reduce interaction and limit social mobility.
• Industrial decline and dockland closures created dereliction in many inner-city areas by causing unemployment, abandoned buildings and boarded-up housing.
• Derelict urban land can increase antisocial behaviour, create environmental hazards, reduce property values, discourage investment and act as a barrier between communities.
• High clean-up costs on contaminated brownfield land can encourage developers to build on greenfield sites instead, which increases urban sprawl.
• The rural-urban fringe is the zone where built-up urban land meets open countryside.
• Growth at the rural-urban fringe is driven by counter-urbanisation, population growth, limited space in inner urban areas and rising land prices.
• Push factors from inner urban areas include old and expensive housing, environmental pollution, shortage of land, costly brownfield development and poor access for heavy goods vehicles.
• Pull factors towards the rural-urban fringe include cheaper land, larger homes and factories, better road access and working patterns such as flexible or home working.
• Unchecked outward growth at the rural-urban fringe leads to urban sprawl.
• Urban sprawl provides land for housing, retail, manufacturing and major services such as hospitals and superstores.
• Urban sprawl can cause the loss of farmland, wildlife habitats, rural character and green space.
• Urban sprawl increases impermeable surfaces and surface run-off, which raises flood risk.
• Urban sprawl often increases car dependency, traffic and emissions because people travel longer distances.
• Urban sprawl can increase the cost of public transport and other social services because local authorities have to spread provision over a wider area.
• Green belts are protected areas around some cities where development is restricted, but urban growth can leapfrog beyond the green belt and create commuter towns.
• Commuter towns mainly contain housing, schools and retail, and growing demand in commuter settlements can raise house prices beyond what local people can afford.
• Long commutes from commuter towns can increase congestion, pollution and time lost, which lowers productivity.
• Brownfield sites are areas of land that have been built on before and are redeveloped for new uses.
• Brownfield development can revive unused urban land, protect countryside from development and make use of existing water, electricity and sewage infrastructure close to jobs.
• Brownfield development can be expensive because old buildings may need clearing and pollution may need cleaning up, and rundown surroundings can reduce its attractiveness.
• Greenfield sites are areas of land that have never been built on before.
• Greenfield development can provide a healthier environment, easier site layout, faster house building and simpler infrastructure installation.
• Greenfield development can destroy farmland, wildlife habitats, recreation spaces and countryside character, can create noise and light pollution in the countryside and often has weaker public transport links.
• Birmingham is located in the centre of the UK and forms the core of the West Midlands conurbation.
• Birmingham is one of the most important cities in the UK because it has strong national and international transport links.
• Birmingham New Street is the busiest railway station outside London and was used by more than 34 million passengers in 2014.
• Birmingham Airport handled more than 9 million passengers in 2014 and offers connections to destinations in Africa, South America, China and the USA.
• Birmingham has direct rail connections to many major UK cities, which strengthens its national importance.
• Birmingham is one of the greenest cities in the UK because it has more than 8,000 acres of parks and open space.
• Birmingham has a large and diverse economy with strong employment in law, property and major national companies such as the BBC and Jaguar Land Rover.
• Birmingham provides premises for more than 300 overseas companies, which increases its international economic importance.
• The European Cities Monitor ranked Birmingham among the top 15 best cities in Europe in 2009.
• Around GBP 13 billion was planned for infrastructure investment in Birmingham over the following decade to raise its global importance.
• Birmingham Hippodrome is the busiest theatre in the UK and attracts more than 520,000 visitors each year.
• About half of Birmingham's population growth comes from migration.
• In 2012 to 2013, Birmingham received about 12,000 international migrants and 40,800 migrants from within the UK.
• Migration has helped Birmingham develop a hard-working labour force.
• Migration has enriched Birmingham's cultural life and contributed to the city's multicultural character.
• Young migrants help offset the effects of an ageing population in Birmingham.
• Birmingham's multicultural character is reflected in places such as the Balti Triangle.
• Housing supply in Birmingham has not kept pace with population growth, which has increased the cost of renting and buying homes.
• Migration can create pressure on schools in Birmingham because some pupils arrive with English as an additional language.
• A challenge of migration in Birmingham is integrating newcomers into the wider community.
• Birmingham's growing and ethnically diverse population has created social opportunities linked to culture, education, shopping and leisure.
• Birmingham has a wide range of entertainment opportunities, including nightlife, an underground music scene, major theatre provision and a large museum and art gallery collection.
• Birmingham has two professional football teams, which adds to its sporting opportunities.
• The Bullring has more than 160 shops and attracts about 750,000 visitors each week.
• Birmingham has five universities and more than 50,000 students.
• Birmingham has one of the youngest populations in Europe.
• Birmingham's road network includes the M5, M6, M40 and M42, giving the city strong national accessibility.
• Birmingham has an integrated public transport system of buses, trams and rail services operated through Network West Midlands.
• Birmingham has the largest number of businesses outside London.
• Birmingham offers employment in sectors such as retail, manufacturing and scientific research.
• Birmingham's economic opportunities include research activity at centres such as the University of Birmingham Bio Hub.
• More than 28,000 job vacancies in Birmingham were advertised on major employment websites.
• Birmingham has created environmental opportunities by developing blue corridors along rivers and canals.
• The Longbridge redevelopment scheme includes blue corridor development as part of urban environmental improvement.
• Birmingham promotes walking and cycling as more sustainable forms of transport.
• Birmingham has used green roofs and green walls to increase biodiversity, reduce heat absorption and lower surface run-off.
• Birmingham has developed rapid transit within its integrated transport system to help reduce congestion.
• Journeys in Birmingham can take about 31% longer during rush hour, which shows the scale of congestion in the city.
• Urban greening in Birmingham has increased open space, including the opening of the six-acre Eastside City Park in 2013.
• Dereliction in Birmingham has developed where older industrial buildings and dense inner-city housing have become run down.
• Derelict areas in Birmingham can lead to squatting, vandalism and antisocial behaviour.
• In 2015, Birmingham was estimated to need 89,000 new homes, but land had been identified for only 51,000 homes.
• Waste disposal is a growing challenge in Birmingham because the city's population is increasing.
• In 2015, only about 30% of Birmingham's waste was recycled.
• Birmingham City Council aimed to increase the city's recycling rate to 40% by 2026.
• Birmingham has household waste recycling centres that collect recyclable material before it is processed at larger recycling facilities.
• More than 52,000 tonnes of rubbish in Birmingham were recycled or composted in 2014.
• Birmingham's Energy Recovery Facility processes about 350,000 tonnes of waste each year and converts it into electricity.
• Urban sprawl in Birmingham has increased because rapid population growth and demand for new housing.
• Birmingham has responded to urban sprawl by prioritising high-density housing on brownfield sites.
• Birmingham is the sixth most deprived local authority area in the country.
• Industrial decline since the 1970s has been a major cause of deprivation in Birmingham.
• Many businesses left Birmingham from the 1970s onwards to reduce costs by relocating to countries with cheaper labour.
• Industrial decline in Birmingham created a spiral of decline that increased urban deprivation.
• Deprived parts of Birmingham often have poorer quality housing and are commonly found in areas affected by industrial decline.
• Boarded-up factories and shops in deprived parts of Birmingham contribute to crime and vandalism.
• Unemployment caused by industrial decline reduces some residents' ability to improve their housing or move home.
• Around 10,000 people in Birmingham are homeless.
• Educational inequality in Birmingham is shown by the proportion of pupils gaining grades 9 to 5 in five GCSEs, which is about 87% in Sutton Four Oaks and 43% in Ladywood.
• Higher-income families in Birmingham are more likely to engage with their children's education and support progression into further education.
• Deindustrialisation in Birmingham's inner city reduced employment and contributed to lower aspirations in some communities.
• Language barriers can make it harder for some migrant families in Birmingham to access and succeed in education.
• Health inequality in Birmingham is shown by life expectancy being about 86 years in Sutton Four Oaks and 75 years in Washwood Heath.
• Poor quality inner-city housing in Birmingham can include damp and mould that damage health.
• Higher levels of pollution in Birmingham's inner-city areas contribute to respiratory illness and other health problems.
• Limited access to services such as day centres and leisure centres can worsen mental health and reduce life expectancy in deprived parts of Birmingham.
• Unemployment varies sharply across Birmingham, with rates of about 21.7% in Sutton Four Oaks and 41.4% in Lozells.
• People living closer to Birmingham city centre may experience greater air and noise pollution.
• Smoking, drinking and poor diet are more common in deprived parts of Birmingham and contribute to poorer health outcomes.
• Higher-income residents in Birmingham often have better access to facilities such as gyms.
• The rural-urban fringe is the land at the edge of Birmingham where urban development meets the countryside.
• Birmingham's rural-urban fringe is under pressure from urban sprawl because it is seen as a valuable area for development.
• Land uses on Birmingham's rural-urban fringe include transport infrastructure, suburban growth, commuter settlements, edge-of-town retail parks and leisure developments.
• Eastside is an urban regeneration project in Birmingham that aims to make the city more sustainable, improve quality of life and redevelop brownfield land.
• Eastside includes the HS2 Curzon Street transport hub, which is intended to stimulate economic growth in Birmingham.
• A range of apartments, townhouses and affordable housing in Eastside is designed to allow people from different income groups to live in the area.
• Socially mixed housing in Eastside is intended to create a more inclusive community.
• Walkable neighbourhood blocks, open spaces and community areas in Eastside are designed to encourage social interaction and reduce social isolation.
• The Eastside redevelopment and HS2 Curzon Street hub are expected to create around 12,000 jobs.
• Job creation in Eastside is intended to reduce unemployment in nearby inner-city wards and improve quality of life.
• Eastside encourages a mix of small and medium-sized enterprises to diversify the local economy and reduce dependence on one sector.
• Construction contracts in Eastside aim to use local labour and suppliers, which strengthens Birmingham's economy through the multiplier effect.
• HS2 is expected to attract investment in offices, retail and technology in Eastside and create long-term employment opportunities.
• Eastside is intended to regenerate Birmingham's student and knowledge quarter, including Birmingham City University and Aston University.
• Regeneration in Eastside focuses on reusing brownfield industrial land, which helps protect the countryside and reduce urban sprawl.
• Eastside City Park is the first major new park in Birmingham city centre for more than 100 years.
• Green corridors and tree-lined streets in Eastside are intended to improve air quality and urban biodiversity.
• New buildings in Eastside use recycling systems, energy-efficient design and sustainable materials to reduce waste and lower carbon emissions.
• Urban sustainability means meeting present needs without preventing future generations from meeting their own needs.
• Sustainable urban living requires cities to manage resources in ways that protect the environment and improve quality of life.
• Waste recycling is a feature of sustainable urban living because it reduces the amount of rubbish sent to landfill and lowers demand for raw materials.
• Many cities face water shortages because they are growing in areas with limited water supplies and climate change is likely to make the problem worse.
• Water conservation in cities includes using less water and increasing the recycling and reuse of water.
• Improving urban sanitation requires wastewater treatment, public education about water use and investment in water treatment plants.
• Low-flush toilets and greywater systems can reduce domestic water demand in cities.
• Cities consume large amounts of energy, so energy conservation is essential for sustainable urban living.
• Electrical devices in cities release heat and contribute to higher urban temperatures.
• Energy-efficient appliances help reduce energy use and can limit additional warming in urban areas.
• Governments can make cities more sustainable by promoting renewable energy instead of fossil fuels.
• Coal-fired power stations release heavy air pollution that can create smog and damage human health.
• Urban greening improves quality of life by helping cities manage environmental and economic pressures.
• Urban greening includes creating green spaces, prioritising brownfield sites over greenfield sites and involving local communities in environmental improvement.
• Sustainable urban projects can create local employment by involving communities in environmental improvement schemes.
• Vegetation and soil reduce flood risk by storing water and slowing the movement of surface run-off into drains and rivers.
• Green spaces increase urban biodiversity by providing habitats for plants and animals.
• Urban materials such as concrete, tarmac and glass absorb heat and create the urban heat island effect.
• Trees and other vegetation cool cities by providing shade and lowering urban temperatures.
• Trees and plants improve urban air quality by filtering pollutants from the air.
• Corporate sustainability involves businesses reducing their environmental impact and carbon footprint.
• Businesses can support urban sustainability by reducing packaging, using recyclable packaging, trading locally and using renewable energy and other low-energy devices.
• Cities must remain economically sustainable because severe financial decline can lead to bankruptcy.
• Ecotowns are planned settlements designed to reduce environmental impact and strengthen community ties.
• Ecotowns often include community biomass boilers, triple-glazed windows, extra insulation, solar panels and low-energy appliances to reduce energy use.
• Ecotowns may provide digital infrastructure that supports home working and reduces commuting.
• Green spaces in ecotowns help protect and enhance wildlife.
• A brownfield site is land that has previously been built on or used, often for industry, and is available for redevelopment.
• Deindustrialisation is the decline of industrial activity in a region or national economy.
• A green belt is an area of countryside around a city where development is restricted to limit urban sprawl.
• A greenfield site is land that has not previously been built on and is usually located in a rural area.
• The inner-city zone is the older central part of a city, often with high population density and older housing.
• Migration is the movement of people from one place to another within a country or across international borders.
• Push-pull factors are the conditions that drive people away from one place and attract them to another.
• The rural-urban fringe is the zone where urban and rural land uses meet.
• Suburbanisation is the outward growth of urban development into surrounding rural areas to create suburbs.
• Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities.
• Urban regeneration is the process of improving and revitalising urban areas that have experienced decline.
• Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled outward expansion of urban areas into surrounding countryside.
• A favela is an informal settlement in Brazil.
• Informal employment is work that is not regulated by the government and often lacks job security, legal protection or benefits.
• An informal settlement is a residential area that has developed without legal rights to the land or official planning permission.
• A low-income country, or LIC, is a country with a low gross national income per person.
• A megacity is a city with a population of more than 10 million people.
• The multiplier effect is the process by which an increase in spending leads to a greater overall increase in income and economic activity.
• A newly emerging economy, or NEE, is a country experiencing rapid economic growth and industrialisation.
• Natural increase is the growth of a population caused by birth rates being higher than death rates.
• Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside to towns and cities in search of better opportunities.
• A site and service scheme is an urban housing approach in which authorities provide land and basic services so residents can build their own homes.
• Top-down development is development planned and led by governments or large organisations with limited input from local communities.
• The Favela-Bairro Project was a scheme in Rio de Janeiro that aimed to improve living conditions in favelas by providing services and recognising residents' rights to land.
• A commuter settlement is a residential area where many people travel to work in a nearby city.
• Deprivation is a lack of resources, opportunities and services that reduces quality of life.
• Ethnic segregation is the separation of people of different ethnic groups, often shown in residential patterns.
• A post-industrial economy is an economy in which the service sector contributes more wealth than manufacturing.
• Housing inequality is the difference between social groups in the quality, affordability and availability of housing.
• Urban fringe development is the expansion of towns and cities into rural land at their edges.
• Urban transport strategies are policies and schemes designed to improve transport systems and reduce congestion in urban areas.
• An ecological footprint is a measure of the demand that people place on natural resources.
• Green space is land covered by vegetation in an urban area that provides environmental and recreational benefits.
• Park and ride is a transport system in which people park outside a city centre and complete their journey by public transport.
• A recycling scheme is a programme that manages waste by collecting and reusing materials.
• Sustainable urban living means meeting present urban needs without preventing future generations from meeting their own needs.
• Urban greening is the creation, protection or improvement of green spaces in urban areas.
• Waste management is the organised handling, treatment and disposal of waste in ways that reduce environmental harm.
• Water conservation is the careful use and protection of water resources through measures such as greywater systems and public education.
• A growing percentage of the world's population lives in urban areas.
• The global pattern of urban change varies between different parts of the world.
• Urban trends differ between high-income countries and low-income countries or newly emerging economies.
• The rate of urbanisation is affected by migration and by natural increase.
• Push factors and pull factors influence migration to urban areas.
• Megacities are a result of rapid urban growth in some parts of the world.
• The growth of a major city in a low-income country or newly emerging economy is caused by natural increase and migration.
• Urban growth in a major city in a low-income country or newly emerging economy can create social opportunities such as better access to health care, education, water supply and energy.
• Urban growth in a major city in a low-income country or newly emerging economy can create economic opportunities because industrial areas can stimulate development.
• Rapid urban growth in a major city in a low-income country or newly emerging economy creates challenges including slums and squatter settlements.
• Rapid urban growth in a major city in a low-income country or newly emerging economy makes it difficult to provide clean water, sanitation systems, energy, health care and education.
• Major cities in low-income countries and newly emerging economies can face unemployment, crime, waste disposal problems, air pollution, water pollution and traffic congestion.
• Urban planning can improve quality of life for the urban poor in major cities in low-income countries and newly emerging economies.
• Urban change in a major UK city can create social and economic opportunities including a cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment and integrated transport systems.
• Urban change in a major UK city can create environmental opportunities through urban greening.
• Urban change in a major UK city can create challenges including urban deprivation and inequalities in housing, education, health and employment.
• Environmental challenges in a major UK city include dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal and the effects of urban sprawl on the rural-urban fringe.
• The growth of commuter settlements is linked to urban sprawl around major UK cities.
• Urban sustainability requires the management of resources and transport.
• Features of sustainable urban living include water conservation, energy conservation, waste recycling and the creation of green space.
• Urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion.

• Interpret urbanisation data to compare the pace and extent of urban change in HICs, LICs and NEEs.
• Explain differences in urban growth rates by linking economic development, migration and natural increase.
• Classify migration factors in a scenario as push factors or pull factors and relate them to rural-urban migration.
• Use population thresholds to identify whether an urban area qualifies as a megacity.
• Locate Rio de Janeiro within Brazil and explain its regional, national and international importance using case study evidence.
• Explain how migration and natural increase have caused the growth of Rio de Janeiro.
• Assess how urban growth in Rio de Janeiro has created social opportunities through access to water, energy, health care and education.
• Assess how urban growth in Rio de Janeiro has created economic opportunities through industry, trade and tourism.
• Explain how rapid urban growth in Rio de Janeiro has created challenges linked to informal settlements, service provision, unemployment and crime.
• Explain how rapid urban growth in Rio de Janeiro has created environmental challenges linked to waste disposal, air pollution, water pollution and traffic congestion.
• Evaluate the success of the Favela Bairro Project in improving quality of life for the urban poor by weighing improvements against remaining limitations.
• Interpret population distribution evidence to identify the main concentrations of population and major cities in the UK.
• Locate Birmingham within the UK and explain its importance nationally and internationally using case study evidence.
• Explain how national and international migration have influenced the growth and character of Birmingham.
• Assess how urban change in Birmingham has created social and economic opportunities including cultural mix, recreation, employment and integrated transport.
• Assess how urban change in Birmingham has created environmental opportunities through urban greening and sustainable transport.
• Explain how urban change in Birmingham has created challenges linked to deprivation and inequalities in housing, education, health and employment.
• Evaluate the impacts of urban sprawl on Birmingham's rural-urban fringe and the growth of commuter settlements.
• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of developing brownfield sites and greenfield sites in an urban area.
• Evaluate how the Eastside regeneration project and urban sustainability strategies use water conservation, energy conservation, waste recycling, green space and transport planning to improve urban living.