Curriculum Portal

neurologyYou need to know

• A skill is a learned ability to bring about a predetermined result with maximum certainty and minimum wasted effort.
• Skill is developed through practice, coaching and repetition rather than being present at birth.
• Ability is a largely innate trait or capacity that a performer is born with.
• Abilities such as balance, coordination, agility and reaction time affect how quickly and successfully a performer can learn skills.
• Successful sporting performance depends on both the performer's underlying abilities and the quality of the skills they have learned.
• Basic skills have few sub-routines, require little information processing and are usually easy to learn.
• Complex skills have many sub-routines, require high levels of coordination and decision making, and are usually harder to learn.
• A badminton serve is usually a basic, closed and self-paced skill because the movement is relatively simple and the performer controls the timing in a stable environment.
• A gymnastics vault is a complex skill because it combines several linked movements that must be timed and controlled precisely.
• Open skills are performed in a changing and unpredictable environment, so the performer must adapt the movement to external factors.
• Closed skills are performed in a stable and predictable environment, so the movement can be planned in advance.
• Passing in a football match is an open skill because the positions of teammates, opponents and the ball are constantly changing.
• Self-paced skills are controlled mainly by the performer, who chooses when the action begins and at what rate it is carried out.
• Externally paced skills are controlled mainly by outside factors such as an opponent, a moving ball or a changing environment.
• Returning a tennis serve is externally paced because the receiver must react to the speed, spin and placement of the ball.
• Gross skills use large muscle groups and involve movements that are broad and forceful rather than precise.
• Fine skills use small muscle groups and involve delicate control and accuracy.
• A rugby tackle is mainly a gross skill because it depends on large body movements and force from major muscle groups.
• Applying spin in a table tennis serve is mainly a fine skill because it relies on small, precise movements of the hand and wrist.
• Many sporting skills can be placed in more than one classification at the same time because each classification describes a different feature of the movement.
• Justifying a skill classification requires linking the definition of the class to the specific demands of the sporting example.
• A performance goal is based on a performer's own previous standard and does not depend on social comparison with others.
• Improving a 100 metre sprint time from 13.2 seconds to 12.8 seconds is a performance goal because the target is based on personal improvement.
• Increasing first serve accuracy from 55 per cent to 65 per cent in tennis is a performance goal because the target measures the quality of the performer's own play.
• An outcome goal is based on the final result of a competition and depends on comparison with other performers.
• Winning a hockey match, finishing in the top three or being selected for a county squad are outcome goals because success depends on the result relative to others.
• A performance goal in sport focuses on improving a controllable aspect of a performer's own performance, such as technique, accuracy, consistency, or time.
• An outcome goal in sport focuses on the result of competition, such as winning, beating an opponent, or finishing in a particular position.
• Performance goals are usually more useful than outcome goals because performers can control their own actions but cannot control opponents, officials, or conditions.
• Outcome goals are generally avoided in sport because success depends partly on factors outside the performer's control.
• Beginners often avoid outcome goals because winning may be unrealistic against more experienced performers.
• Failure to achieve an unrealistic outcome goal can reduce confidence and motivation in beginner performers.
• Performance goals are often more appropriate for beginners because they allow success to be judged through personal improvement.
• Performance goals and outcome goals can be combined so that a performer pursues a competitive result while also focusing on controllable improvements.
• Combining outcome goals with performance goals can help maintain motivation while keeping attention on the aspects of performance the performer can influence.
• SMART targets are used in sport to make goal setting clear, structured, and focused on improvement.
• SMART stands for specific, measurable, accepted, realistic, and time-bound.
• A specific target states exactly what skill, component of fitness, or aspect of performance must improve.
• A measurable target includes a standard that can be checked objectively, such as a time, distance, score, or number of repetitions.
• An accepted target is agreed by the performer and the people supporting the training programme, such as a coach or teacher.
• Accepted targets are more effective because performers are more likely to commit to goals they understand and agree with.
• A realistic target is challenging but achievable for the performer given their current ability, stage of training, and available resources.
• A target that is unrealistic is less effective because repeated failure can reduce motivation and confidence.
• A time-bound target includes a clear deadline or time period for achievement.
• Time-bound targets allow progress to be reviewed at a specific point and help performers plan training over an appropriate period.
• SMART targets help to improve and optimise performance because they give training direction, make progress easier to monitor, and increase motivation.
• The basic information processing model explains how a performer receives information, chooses a response, carries out the movement and evaluates the result.
• The four stages of the basic information processing model are input, decision making, output and feedback.
• Input is the information a performer receives from the display and the environment through the senses.
• In sport, input can include seeing the flight of a ball, hearing a teammate call, or feeling body position and balance.
• Selective attention is the ability to focus on the relevant cues in a performance situation and ignore irrelevant information.
• Skilled performers usually use selective attention more effectively because they identify the most important cues more quickly.
• Decision making is the stage at which a performer interprets the input and selects the most appropriate response.
• Short-term memory holds information about the immediate situation so the performer can process what is happening now.
• Long-term memory stores learned skills, past experiences and information about previous situations that can guide decision making.
• Output is the transmission of information from the brain through the nervous system to the muscles to produce the chosen movement.
• In the output stage, the muscles contract in the correct order and with the correct amount of force to perform the response.
• Feedback is information received during or after the movement about the quality and success of the performance.
• Intrinsic feedback, also called self-feedback, comes from the performer's own senses and includes kinaesthetic information about how the movement felt.
• Extrinsic feedback comes from external sources such as a coach, teacher, official, teammate or the result shown on a scoreboard.
• Feedback can be used to compare the actual performance with the intended performance and to improve future responses.
• In a sporting example such as returning a tennis serve, the performer sees the ball and opponent as input, chooses a shot in decision making, plays the shot in output and judges the result through feedback.
• Guidance is support or information from a teacher or coach that helps a performer learn or improve a skill.
• The four types of guidance in GCSE PE are visual guidance, verbal guidance, manual guidance and mechanical guidance.
• The most effective type of guidance depends on the performer's experience level, the complexity of the skill and the need for safety.
• Beginners usually need more guidance than elite performers because beginners have not yet established stable movement patterns.
• Visual guidance involves seeing a skill performed correctly, for example through a live demonstration, video replay or diagram.
• Visual guidance is usually effective for beginners because it helps them build a clear mental picture of the correct action.
• Visual guidance is most effective when the model is accurate and matched to the learner's level so that the key features can be copied successfully.
• Elite performers can use visual guidance such as slow-motion video to analyse and refine small technical details of performance.
• Verbal guidance involves spoken instructions or cues that tell a performer what to do and how to improve.
• Verbal guidance is often most effective for elite performers because experienced performers can understand detailed technical language and apply precise corrections.
• Verbal guidance is less effective for beginners when explanations are too long, too complex or full of unfamiliar terminology.
• Manual guidance involves physical support from a teacher or coach to guide a performer through the required movement.
• Manual guidance is effective for beginners because it can help them feel the correct movement and increase safety when learning difficult skills.
• Manual guidance is less suitable for elite performers because physical support reduces independence and does not reflect normal performance conditions.
• Mechanical guidance uses equipment or aids such as a harness, float or support frame to assist movement.
• Mechanical guidance can increase confidence and safety for beginners by reducing fear and allowing controlled practice of a skill.
• Mechanical guidance can become ineffective if the aid changes the movement too much and prevents transfer to full independent performance.
• Choosing guidance for a beginner usually involves more support and clearer information because beginners have limited experience of the skill.
• Choosing guidance for an elite performer usually involves less support and more precise information because elite performers already have established movement patterns.
• Feedback is information received during or after performance that tells a performer about the quality or outcome of that performance.
• The main types of feedback in GCSE PE are positive and negative feedback, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance, and intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.
• Positive feedback tells a performer that a response was correct or successful and encourages that response to be repeated.
• Positive feedback is usually effective for beginners because it increases confidence, motivation and willingness to keep practising.
• Negative feedback tells a performer that an aspect of performance was incorrect and needs to be changed.
• Negative feedback is often more effective for elite performers because experienced performers are more able to accept criticism and use it to refine performance.
• Negative feedback can reduce confidence in beginners if it is given too often or without clear advice on how to improve.
• Knowledge of results feedback gives information about the outcome of performance, such as the score, time, distance or whether the attempt was successful.
• Knowledge of performance feedback gives information about the quality of the movement, such as body position, timing, coordination or technique.
• Knowledge of results is often useful for beginners because outcomes are simple to understand and can show whether a skill goal has been achieved.
• Knowledge of performance is often more useful for elite performers because small technical changes can make a significant difference to high-level performance.
• Knowledge of results alone is limited because it does not explain why the performance succeeded or failed.
• Knowledge of performance often depends on expert observation or video analysis because technique details are not always obvious to the performer.
• Extrinsic feedback comes from an external source such as a coach, teacher, team-mate, official or video replay.
• Intrinsic feedback comes from the performer's own senses, such as seeing the ball miss the target or feeling that balance was lost.
• Extrinsic feedback is especially important for beginners because they often cannot judge their own performance accurately.
• Intrinsic feedback becomes more useful as skill level increases because experienced performers can interpret internal cues and make immediate adjustments.
• Elite performers usually benefit from a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic feedback because both internal feel and external analysis can improve performance.
• The most effective feedback matches the performer's level of experience and gives information that can be acted on in the next attempt.
• Motivation is the drive that causes a performer to start, continue and work hard in sport.
• Intrinsic motivation comes from within the performer and is linked to pride, self-satisfaction and personal achievement.
• A runner who trains to beat a personal best is showing intrinsic motivation.
• Extrinsic motivation comes from an external source such as rewards, praise or status.
• Tangible extrinsic rewards in sport include certificates, medals and trophies.
• Intangible extrinsic rewards in sport include praise, feedback and applause.
• A footballer who trains hard to win selection, praise or a medal is showing extrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate together in the same performer.
• Intrinsic motivation is usually more effective than extrinsic motivation for sustaining effort and long-term participation in sport.
• Overuse of extrinsic rewards can weaken intrinsic motivation by shifting attention away from enjoyment and personal achievement.
• Performers who become reliant on extrinsic rewards may lose motivation when rewards or recognition are removed.
• Extrinsic rewards can still increase motivation because success may create pride and self-satisfaction.
• Arousal is a physical and mental state of alertness, readiness and excitement.
• Arousal lies on a continuum from very low levels, such as sleep or deep relaxation, to very high levels, such as intense excitement.
• Changes in arousal affect psychological factors such as concentration and physiological responses such as heart rate and sweating.
• A performer who is under-aroused may feel bored, unfocused or lacking in intensity.
• A performer who is over-aroused may feel anxious, tense or unable to concentrate effectively.
• Both under-arousal and over-arousal can lower performance, so performers aim to control arousal at an optimum level.
• The inverted-U theory shows the relationship between arousal level and performance level in sport.
• On an inverted-U graph, the x-axis shows arousal level from low to high and the y-axis shows performance level from low to high.
• Performance tends to improve as arousal rises from a low level towards the optimum point.
• The highest point on the inverted-U represents optimum arousal and the best possible performance.
• Performance tends to decline when arousal rises beyond the optimum point.
• The inverted-U graph shows low performance at low arousal, high performance at moderate arousal, and low performance again at excessive arousal.
• The optimum level of arousal varies according to the specific skill being performed.
• Fine skills such as a golf putt or an archery shot usually require lower arousal because accuracy and control are essential.
• High arousal can reduce fine skill performance because extra muscle tension makes precise movement harder to control.
• Gross skills such as a rugby tackle or a sprint start usually require higher arousal because power and speed are important.
• Higher arousal can improve gross skill performance when increased intensity helps the performer produce forceful movement.
• Arousal should be matched to the skill or action being performed rather than to the sport in general.
• Stress management techniques help a performer control arousal so that it stays close to the optimum level for performance.
• Deep breathing is a somatic technique in which the performer uses slow, controlled breaths to reduce physical tension and calm the body.
• A basketball player can use deep breathing before a free throw to lower anxiety and improve control.
• Mental rehearsal uses the mind to practise the successful performance of a skill before it is attempted.
• Visualisation and imagery involve creating a clear mental picture of successful performance or of a calm scene to control anxiety and build confidence.
• A gymnast who pictures the exact phases of a vault before starting the run-up is using mental rehearsal and imagery.
• Mental rehearsal can improve confidence because the performer has already imagined executing the skill correctly.
• Positive self-talk uses short, deliberate phrases to replace negative thoughts with confident, task-focused thinking.
• A tennis player who repeats "watch the ball and stay relaxed" before serving is using positive self-talk to control arousal.
• An introvert is typically shy, quiet, thoughtful and comfortable spending time alone.
• Introverts often prefer individual activities that require concentration, precision and fine skill.
• Introverts generally perform best when arousal levels remain relatively low.
• An extrovert is typically sociable, enthusiastic, talkative and stimulated by interaction with other people.
• Extroverts are often aroused by the presence of others and by competitive situations.
• Extroverts are more likely to become bored when isolated from other people.
• Extroverts often prefer team activities in which the pace is high, gross skills dominate and intense concentration on fine detail is less important.
• Extroverts generally perform best when arousal levels are relatively high.
• Personality type can influence which performance environments and arousal levels feel most comfortable to a performer.
• Direct aggression is behaviour intended to harm an opponent and is aimed straight at that person.
• A punch, kick or deliberate elbow to an opponent is an example of direct aggression in sport.
• Indirect aggression is behaviour intended to cause harm without directly attacking the opponent.
• Verbally abusing an opponent or official is an example of indirect aggression in sport.
• Smashing a racket or kicking equipment in frustration is an example of indirect aggression because the aggression is directed at an object rather than at a person.
• Direct aggression usually involves physical contact, whereas indirect aggression may be verbal or may be taken out on an object.

• Classify a named sporting action as basic or complex and justify the decision from its sub-routines and coordination demands.
• Classify a named sporting action as open or closed by referring to how stable or unpredictable the environment is.
• Classify a named sporting action as self-paced or externally paced by identifying who controls the timing of the movement.
• Classify a named sporting action as gross or fine by referring to the muscle groups used and the precision required.
• Set an appropriate performance goal for a named performer using their current standard rather than comparison with others.
• Evaluate when a performance goal, an outcome goal, or a combination of both is most suitable in a sporting example.
• Apply SMART criteria to create or improve a target for a named performer.
• Draw the basic information processing model in the correct sequence of input, decision making, output and feedback.
• Apply the information processing model to a sporting example by identifying the input, response selection, movement output and feedback.
• Explain how selective attention, short-term memory and long-term memory influence decision making in a named activity.
• Select and justify the most appropriate type of guidance for a beginner or elite performer from visual, verbal, manual and mechanical guidance.
• Select and justify the most appropriate type of feedback for a beginner or elite performer from positive or negative, knowledge of results or knowledge of performance, and intrinsic or extrinsic feedback.
• Interpret feedback from a performance and suggest a specific technical improvement for the next attempt.
• Evaluate whether intrinsic or extrinsic motivation is more likely to sustain effort in a named sporting example.
• Plot and label an inverted-U graph with arousal level on the x-axis and performance level on the y-axis.
• Describe how performance changes on the inverted-U graph when a performer is under-aroused, optimally aroused and over-aroused.
• Apply an appropriate arousal level to a named fine or gross skill and justify the choice from the demands of the action.
• Select and explain a suitable stress management technique, such as deep breathing, mental rehearsal or positive self-talk, for a named performance situation.
• Identify whether a sporting behaviour shows direct or indirect aggression and justify the classification.
• Relate the characteristics of an introvert or extrovert to a suitable sporting role or activity.