Curriculum Portal

neurologyYou need to know

• The cranium forms the skull and protects the brain.
• The vertebrae form the vertebral column in the neck and back.
• The scapula is the shoulder blade.
• The humerus is the upper arm bone.
• The ribs form the rib cage around the chest.
• The sternum is the breastbone at the front of the chest.
• The radius is the forearm bone on the thumb side.
• The ulna is the forearm bone on the little-finger side.
• The pelvis forms the hip girdle.
• The femur is the thigh bone between the hip and knee.
• The tibia is the larger weight-bearing bone in the lower leg.
• The fibula is the thinner lower-leg bone alongside the tibia.
• The patella is the kneecap and sits in front of the knee joint.
• The talus is the ankle bone that articulates with the tibia and fibula.
• The skeleton is a framework of bones that supports the body and enables movement.
• A joint is a place where two or more bones meet.
• The shoulder joint is formed by the scapula and the humerus.
• The elbow joint is formed by the humerus, radius and ulna.
• The hip joint is formed by the pelvis and femur.
• The knee joint is formed by the femur and tibia, and the patella sits in front of the joint.
• The ankle joint is formed by the tibia, fibula and talus.
• Long bones such as the femur and humerus act as levers to produce gross movement.
• Short bones enable small, controlled movements.
• Flat bones protect vital organs.
• Different joint types allow different ranges and directions of movement.
• Tendons attach muscles to bones so that muscle contraction can pull bones.
• Ligaments attach bone to bone and help keep joints stable.
• Support is a function of the skeleton because bones hold the body upright and maintain posture against gravity.
• Protection is a function of the skeleton because flat bones shield vital organs from injury.
• Movement is a function of the skeleton because muscles pull on bones across joints.
• The skeleton gives the body structural shape.
• Bones provide attachment points for muscles that create movement.
• Mineral storage is a function of the skeleton because bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
• Blood cell production is a function of the skeleton because bone marrow produces red and white blood cells and platelets.
• The vertebral column and lower-limb bones support body weight during standing, walking and running.
• The cranium protects the brain from impact in physical activity.
• The ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs during contact and collision sports.
• Red blood cells produced in bone marrow are important in physical activity because they transport oxygen to working muscles.
• Latissimus dorsi is a back muscle that extends and adducts the arm at the shoulder.
• The deltoid is the shoulder muscle that abducts the arm.
• The rotator cuff muscles stabilise the shoulder joint and assist shoulder rotation.
• The pectorals are chest muscles that flex and adduct the arm at the shoulder.
• The biceps is the muscle at the front of the upper arm that flexes the elbow.
• The triceps is the muscle at the back of the upper arm that extends the elbow.
• The abdominals stabilise the trunk and help flex and rotate the torso.
• The hip flexors flex the hip and lift the thigh.
• The gluteals extend the hip and move the thigh backwards.
• The hamstrings are the muscle group at the back of the thigh that flexes the knee.
• The quadriceps are the muscle group at the front of the thigh that extends the knee.
• The gastrocnemius is the calf muscle that plantar flexes the ankle.
• The tibialis anterior is the shin muscle that dorsiflexes the ankle.
• Tendons are strong connective tissues that attach muscle to bone.
• Synovial joints are freely movable joints.
• The synovial membrane lines the joint capsule and produces synovial fluid.
• Synovial fluid lubricates the joint to reduce friction during movement.
• The joint capsule is a tough fibrous sleeve that encloses the joint and adds stability.
• Cartilage covers the ends of bones in a synovial joint to reduce friction and absorb shock.
• Ligaments connect bone to bone and help prevent excessive movement or dislocation.
• Bursae are small fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between tissues around a joint.
• The structures of a synovial joint help prevent injury by reducing friction, absorbing shock and stabilising the joint.
• The type of joint determines the range and direction of movement that is possible.
• A hinge joint allows movement mainly in one plane.
• The elbow, knee and ankle are hinge joints in GCSE PE.
• A ball and socket joint allows movement in multiple directions, including rotation.
• The shoulder and hip are ball and socket joints.
• Flexion is movement that decreases the angle at a joint.
• Extension is movement that increases the angle at a joint.
• Abduction is movement away from the body's midline.
• Adduction is movement towards the body's midline.
• Rotation is movement around the long axis of a limb.
• Circumduction is a circular movement that combines flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.
• Plantar flexion is pointing the toes away from the shin at the ankle.
• Dorsiflexion is lifting the toes towards the shin at the ankle.
• Flexion and extension occur at the shoulder, elbow, hip and knee.
• Abduction, adduction, rotation and circumduction occur at the shoulder.
• Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion occur at the ankle.
• Skeletal muscles move the skeleton by contracting and pulling on bones through tendons.
• Muscles work in antagonistic pairs because muscles can pull but cannot push.
• The agonist is the muscle primarily responsible for a movement.
• The prime mover is another term for the agonist.
• The antagonist is the muscle that opposes the action of the agonist.
• The roles of agonist and antagonist swap when the direction of movement reverses.
• An isometric contraction develops tension without changing muscle length or producing movement.
• An isotonic contraction changes muscle length and produces movement.
• A concentric contraction is an isotonic contraction in which the muscle shortens.
• An eccentric contraction is an isotonic contraction in which the muscle lengthens under tension.
• The deltoid and latissimus dorsi act as an antagonistic pair at the shoulder.
• During shoulder abduction the deltoid is the agonist and latissimus dorsi is the antagonist.
• During shoulder adduction latissimus dorsi is the agonist and the deltoid is the antagonist.
• The rotator cuff muscles help stabilise the shoulder during movement.
• The biceps and triceps act as an antagonistic pair at the elbow.
• During elbow flexion the biceps is the agonist and the triceps is the antagonist.
• During elbow extension the triceps is the agonist and the biceps is the antagonist.
• The hip flexors and gluteals act as an antagonistic pair at the hip.
• During hip flexion the hip flexors are the agonist and the gluteals are the antagonist.
• During hip extension the gluteals are the agonist and the hip flexors are the antagonist.
• The hamstrings and quadriceps act as an antagonistic pair at the knee.
• During knee flexion the hamstrings are the agonist and the quadriceps are the antagonist.
• During knee extension the quadriceps are the agonist and the hamstrings are the antagonist.
• The gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior act as an antagonistic pair at the ankle.
• During plantar flexion the gastrocnemius is the agonist and the tibialis anterior is the antagonist.
• During dorsiflexion the tibialis anterior is the agonist and the gastrocnemius is the antagonist.
• A concentric contraction occurs when the agonist shortens to create movement, such as the quadriceps during knee extension in a kick.
• An eccentric contraction occurs when the agonist lengthens under tension to control movement, such as the quadriceps during knee flexion on landing.
• An isometric contraction occurs when muscles hold a position still, such as maintaining body tension in a plank.
• Air enters the respiratory system through the mouth or nose and then passes through the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
• The trachea is the main airway that carries air from the mouth and nose towards the lungs.
• Rings of cartilage in the trachea help keep the airway open.
• The bronchi are the two main branches of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.
• Bronchioles are smaller airways that branch from the bronchi and carry air to the alveoli.
• Alveoli are tiny air sacs where gas exchange takes place.
• Gas exchange is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the surrounding capillary blood.
• Gas exchange at the alveoli happens by diffusion, which is the movement of gases from a high concentration to a low concentration.
• Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood because oxygen concentration is higher in the alveoli than in the blood arriving at the lungs.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli because carbon dioxide concentration is higher in the blood than in the alveoli.
• The lungs contain millions of alveoli, which provide a very large surface area for gas exchange.
• Alveoli have moist walls that are one cell thick, which helps gases dissolve and diffuse quickly.
• Capillaries around the alveoli have walls that are one cell thick, which creates a short diffusion pathway.
• A dense capillary network around the alveoli provides a large blood supply, which helps maintain concentration gradients for diffusion.
• Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• Haemoglobin can also carry carbon dioxide in the blood.
• The three main types of blood vessel are arteries, veins and capillaries.
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• Most arteries carry oxygenated blood, but the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
• Arteries have thick muscular walls, elastic tissue and a narrow lumen so they can withstand and maintain high blood pressure.
• Veins carry blood towards the heart.
• Most veins carry deoxygenated blood, but the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
• Veins have thinner walls and a wider lumen than arteries because blood in veins is under lower pressure.
• Veins contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood.
• Capillaries link arteries and veins within body tissues.
• Capillaries have walls that are one cell thick and a very narrow lumen, which makes them efficient for exchange.
• Capillary networks provide a large surface area for the exchange of gases, nutrients and waste products.
• Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of arterioles to reduce blood flow to an area.
• Vasodilation is the widening of arterioles to increase blood flow to an area.
• During exercise, vasodilation increases blood flow to the working muscles.
• During exercise, vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to less active areas such as the digestive system.
• The vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium.
• The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
• The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
• The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
• The heart is made of cardiac muscle, which contracts to pump blood around the body.
• The heart has four chambers called the right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left ventricle.
• The atria are the upper chambers of the heart and they receive blood returning to the heart.
• The ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart and they pump blood away from the heart.
• The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
• Heart valves open when pressure behind them is greater than pressure in front of them.
• Heart valves close to prevent backflow of blood.
• The cardiac cycle is one complete heartbeat.
• The cardiac cycle includes diastole, atrial systole and ventricular systole.
• During diastole, the heart relaxes and the chambers fill with blood.
• During atrial systole, the atria contract and push blood into the ventricles.
• During ventricular systole, the ventricles contract and eject blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta.
• The right and left atria contract at the same time during atrial systole.
• The right and left ventricles contract at the same time during ventricular systole.
• The pathway of blood is vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle and aorta.
• Blood is oxygenated in the lungs before returning to the left atrium.
• Heart rate is the number of beats per minute.
• Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out of the heart with each beat.
• Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped out of the heart each minute.
• Cardiac output is calculated using the formula Q = stroke volume x heart rate.
• If stroke volume increases and heart rate stays the same, cardiac output increases.
• If heart rate increases and stroke volume stays the same, cardiac output increases.
• A fitter performer usually has a lower resting heart rate and a larger stroke volume than a less fit performer.
• A larger stroke volume allows a fitter performer to maintain the same cardiac output with fewer heart beats.
• An anticipatory rise is an increase in heart rate before exercise begins.
• Heart rate increases during exercise to meet the greater demand for oxygen by the working muscles.
• During steady-state exercise, heart rate levels off when exercise intensity remains constant.
• When exercise intensity increases, heart rate rises to a higher level.
• Recovery period is the time taken for heart rate to return towards resting level after exercise.
• A fitter performer usually has a shorter recovery period than a less fit performer.
• Ventilation is the process of breathing in and out.
• Inhalation is also called inspiration, and exhalation is also called expiration.
• Breathing mechanics depend on the movement of the intercostal muscles, ribs and diaphragm.
• During inhalation at rest, the intercostal muscles contract and the ribs move up and out.
• During inhalation at rest, the diaphragm contracts and flattens.
• During inhalation at rest, thoracic volume increases and pressure inside the lungs decreases, so air moves into the lungs.
• During exhalation at rest, the intercostal muscles relax and the ribs move down and in.
• During exhalation at rest, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to a dome shape.
• During exhalation at rest, thoracic volume decreases and pressure inside the lungs increases, so air moves out of the lungs.
• During exercise, the pectorals and sternocleidomastoid assist inspiration so the lungs can expand more.
• During exercise, the abdominal muscles contract to pull the rib cage down more quickly and force air out faster.
• A spirometer is used to measure lung volumes and breathing rate.
• A spirometer trace is a recording of breathing over time.
• Tidal volume is the volume of air breathed in or out in one normal breath.
• Inspiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.
• Expiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.
• Residual volume is the volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.
• A spirometer trace can be used to identify tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume.
• Breathing rate can be calculated from a spirometer trace by counting the number of breaths in a known time period.
• During exercise, tidal volume increases because breathing becomes deeper.
• During exercise, breathing rate increases because breaths are taken more frequently.
• During exercise, inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume decrease as tidal volume increases.
• On a spirometer trace, the onset of exercise is shown by waves becoming taller and closer together.
• Aerobic exercise is exercise performed in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
• Aerobic respiration uses glucose and oxygen to release energy and produces carbon dioxide and water.
• The word equation for aerobic respiration is glucose + oxygen -> energy + carbon dioxide + water.
• Aerobic respiration releases more energy from each glucose molecule than anaerobic respiration because glucose is broken down more completely.
• Aerobic exercise is usually lower in intensity and can be sustained for a long duration.
• Marathon running is mainly aerobic because the activity lasts a long time at a steady submaximal intensity.
• Anaerobic exercise is exercise performed when the body cannot supply enough oxygen to meet energy demand.
• Anaerobic respiration breaks down glucose without enough oxygen to release energy and produces lactic acid.
• The word equation for anaerobic respiration is glucose -> energy + lactic acid.
• Anaerobic exercise is usually very high in intensity and can only be sustained for a short duration.
• A 100 metre sprint is mainly anaerobic because the effort is maximal and lasts only a short time.
• Lactic acid produced during anaerobic exercise contributes to muscular fatigue.
• The intensity and duration of an activity determine whether aerobic or anaerobic respiration is the dominant energy system.
• Many games use both energy systems because performers alternate between lower-intensity movement and short bursts of high-intensity effort.
• Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption, or EPOC, is the extra oxygen required after exercise and is also called oxygen debt.
• EPOC is caused by anaerobic exercise because lactic acid is produced when enough oxygen is not available.
• Breathing rate remains elevated after intense exercise to take in the extra oxygen needed to repay EPOC.
• Heart rate remains elevated after intense exercise to transport oxygen and help remove lactic acid.
• The greater the intensity and duration of anaerobic exercise, the greater the EPOC that must be repaid.
• Light aerobic activity during recovery helps remove lactic acid more effectively than stopping suddenly.
• A cool down is a period of low-intensity exercise performed immediately after activity.
• A cool down keeps breathing rate, heart rate and blood flow above resting levels while the body returns gradually to normal.
• Maintaining blood flow during a cool down helps remove lactic acid after intense exercise.
• Stretching is commonly included in a cool down to maintain flexibility and reduce feelings of muscle tightness.
• Rehydration replaces water lost through sweating during exercise.
• Rehydration is especially important after endurance exercise or exercise in hot conditions because fluid loss is greater.
• Consuming carbohydrate after exercise helps restore energy stores used during activity.
• Carbohydrate recovery is especially important after prolonged exercise or repeated exercise bouts because energy stores can be substantially depleted.
• DOMS stands for delayed onset muscle soreness.
• DOMS is more likely after strenuous, unfamiliar or repeated exercise.
• Ice baths are used after intense exercise to reduce muscle soreness and limit the effects of DOMS.
• Ice baths are more relevant after very hard training or competition than after light exercise.
• Massage is used after exercise to reduce muscle soreness and stiffness.
• Massage is most relevant when a performer needs to recover quickly between training sessions or competitions.
• Recovery methods should be selected according to the intensity of the activity, the type of fatigue produced and the time before the next performance.
• During exercise, heart rate increases so that more oxygenated blood reaches the working muscles each minute.
• During exercise, breathing frequency increases to take in more oxygen and remove more carbon dioxide.
• During exercise, breathing depth increases so that each breath moves a greater volume of air.
• During exercise, skin often feels hot because working muscles release heat and body temperature rises.
• During exercise, sweating helps cool the body because evaporation removes heat from the skin.
• During exercise, skin may become red because blood vessels near the skin surface widen to increase heat loss.
• Tiredness and fatigue are short-term effects of exercise because energy stores are reduced and the body needs time to recover.
• Light-headedness can occur after exercise if blood pressure or blood glucose falls.
• Nausea can occur after intense exercise because blood is redirected away from the digestive system towards the working muscles.
• Aching after exercise is often caused by delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
• Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is muscle pain and stiffness that develops several hours after unfamiliar or strenuous exercise because of microscopic damage to muscle fibres.
• Cramp is a sudden, involuntary muscle contraction that can be triggered by fatigue, dehydration, or an electrolyte imbalance.
• Long-term effects of exercise develop through regular training over months and years.
• Regular training can change body shape by reducing body fat and increasing muscle mass.
• Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle size caused by regular resistance training.
• Regular training can improve muscular strength, which is the ability to exert force against a resistance.
• Regular training can improve muscular endurance, which is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to contract repeatedly without tiring quickly.
• Regular sprint and power training can improve speed, which is the ability to move quickly.
• Regular flexibility training can improve suppleness by increasing the range of motion at a joint.
• Regular aerobic training can improve cardiovascular endurance, which is the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to working muscles during prolonged exercise.
• Improved cardiovascular endurance allows a performer to exercise for longer before fatiguing, which is often described as improved stamina.
• Regular aerobic training can cause cardiac hypertrophy, which means the heart muscle becomes larger and stronger.
• Cardiac hypertrophy increases stroke volume, so more blood is pumped out of the heart with each beat.
• Regular endurance training can lower resting heart rate, which is known as bradycardia.
• Resting heart rate falls after endurance training because increased stroke volume allows the same cardiac output to be maintained with fewer beats.

• Identify bones at the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle and classify the shoulder and hip as ball and socket joints and the elbow, knee and ankle as hinge joints.
• Describe movements at named joints using the terms flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, plantar flexion and dorsiflexion.
• Apply the functions of the skeleton to sporting situations by linking support, protection and movement to specific examples.
• Identify major muscle groups acting at the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle.
• Explain how antagonistic muscle pairs produce a named movement by identifying the agonist and antagonist.
• Distinguish between isometric, concentric and eccentric contractions in sporting actions.
• Explain how tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bursae, synovial fluid, the synovial membrane and the joint capsule support movement and reduce injury risk.
• Trace the pathway of air from the mouth or nose to the alveoli.
• Explain gaseous exchange at the alveoli using diffusion, large surface area, thin moist walls and capillary supply.
• Compare arteries, veins and capillaries by linking their structures to their functions.
• Interpret redistribution of blood during exercise by applying vasodilation and vasoconstriction to working and non-working areas.
• Trace the pathway of blood through the heart, lungs and body in the correct order.
• Explain the stages of the cardiac cycle from a named starting point.
• Calculate cardiac output from heart rate and stroke volume.
• Interpret heart rate graphs by identifying anticipatory rise, steady state, changes in intensity and recovery.
• Explain inhalation and exhalation at rest and during exercise using the actions of the intercostal muscles, ribs, diaphragm and accessory muscles.
• Interpret spirometer traces by identifying lung volumes, calculating breathing rate and showing the onset of exercise.
• Classify sporting activities as mainly aerobic or mainly anaerobic and justify the classification from intensity and duration.
• Evaluate recovery methods by selecting appropriate responses to EPOC, dehydration, depleted energy stores and DOMS.
• Explain immediate, short-term and long-term effects of exercise and apply them to performance analysis.