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neurologyYou need to know

• The main food groups required for a healthy diet are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and water.
• Carbohydrates provide energy.
• Proteins are needed for growth and repair.
• Fats provide energy and insulation.
• Vitamins and minerals are required for various bodily functions.
• Fibre aids digestion.
• Water is essential for hydration and bodily processes.
• The balance of food groups changes during a lifetime; for example, children need more protein for growth, and older adults may need more calcium and vitamin D.
• Athletes require a diet higher in carbohydrates and protein, and may alter intake based on training or competition.
• The recommended daily intake includes at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables, meals based on higher fibre starchy foods, some dairy or alternatives, and some beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat, and other protein sources.
• Daily activities can be ranked by the energy they require; for example, running uses more energy than sitting.
• Daily energy requirements depend on age, sex, activity level, and job.
• Energy requirements increase with more physically demanding jobs.
• Iodine solution tests for starch, changing from brown to blue-black when starch is present.
• Biuret solution tests for protein, changing from blue to lilac when protein is present.
• Benedict's solution tests for reducing sugars, changing from blue to green, yellow, orange, or brick-red when a positive sample is heated in a water bath.
• The emulsion test for fats uses ethanol followed by water, producing a cloudy white emulsion when fats are present.
• Positive results for each food test indicate the presence of the nutrient.
• Food tests are qualitative and may not indicate the exact amount of a nutrient.
• Three consequences of an unbalanced diet include obesity, malnutrition, and deficiency diseases.
• Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) causes anaemia, bleeding gums, and exhaustion.
• Rickets (vitamin D/calcium deficiency) causes weak bones and bone pain.
• Anaemia (iron deficiency) causes tiredness and weakness.
• Deficiency diseases can be treated by restoring the missing nutrient.
• The main parts of the digestive system are the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
• The human stomach contains muscle tissue (movement), glandular tissue (secretes enzymes and acid), and epithelial tissue (lines and protects).
• Each tissue in the stomach has a specific function.
• Chemical digestion involves breaking down food with enzymes; physical digestion involves mechanical processes like chewing.
• Carbohydrases (e.g., amylase) break down carbohydrates to sugars.
• Proteases break down proteins to amino acids.
• Lipases break down fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
• Enzymes work best at specific pH and temperature.
• The lock and key theory explains how enzymes are specific to their substrates.
• A cheese roll is digested by mechanical and chemical processes, involving different enzymes at each stage.
• Lactose intolerance is caused by a lack of the enzyme lactase.
• The small intestine absorbs nutrients; its adaptations include villi, microvilli, and a rich blood supply.
• Adaptations of the small intestine increase surface area for diffusion and absorption.
• Crohn's disease affects the small intestine, causing inflammation and absorption issues.
• Bacteria in the gut help digest food, produce vitamins, and prevent harmful bacteria growth.
• The relationship between gut bacteria and humans is mutualistic.
• Scientists believe gut bacteria (the microbiome) influence health and disease.
• Three legal recreational drugs are alcohol, nicotine (in tobacco), and caffeine.
• Excessive alcohol can damage the liver, brain, and behaviour.
• Withdrawal symptoms are physical or mental effects after stopping a drug.
• Caffeine is a stimulant and can cause increased alertness, but also withdrawal symptoms like headaches.
• Corticosteroids may be legally prescribed for medical treatment, while anabolic steroids are Class C drugs in the UK that may be possessed for personal use but cannot legally be supplied or imported by post or courier; anabolic steroids are also prohibited in competitive sport.

• Identify and state the main food groups in a given diet.
• Describe the function of each food group and explain how dietary needs change with age or activity level.
• Design a balanced diet for different individuals, including athletes.
• Rank daily activities by energy requirement using data or examples.
• Calculate daily energy requirements from given data, such as using equations or tables.
• Perform and interpret the four food tests, heating Benedict's test samples safely in a water bath, adding ethanol followed by water for the emulsion test, keeping ethanol away from flames, and recognising each positive result.
• Identify an unknown food sample using results from food tests.
• Describe and explain the symptoms and treatment of deficiency diseases.
• Label a diagram of the digestive system and name the main tissue types in the stomach.
• Explain the function of each tissue in the stomach and predict consequences if tissues fail.
• Distinguish between chemical and physical digestion.
• Name the main enzymes, state where they work, and identify the products of their action.
• Explain the digestion of a cheese roll, step by step.
• Explain the adaptations of the small intestine for absorption using knowledge of diffusion.
• Describe how enzymes work using the lock and key theory.
• Describe the role of gut bacteria and explain mutualism.
• Describe the effects of legal recreational drugs and withdrawal symptoms.
• Explain how to identify and treat deficiency diseases.
• Distinguish prescribed corticosteroids from anabolic steroids, and explain the UK rules governing the personal possession, supply, postal or courier import, and competitive sporting use of anabolic steroids.